The Hebrew Bible: Septuagint and Masoretic Texts

In this space I am going to store research concerning all things Hebrew Scriptures, focusing much on the Masoretic Text (MT) and the Septuagint (LXX): videos, articles, essays, Dead Sea Scroll (DSS) research, AI research, etc… So, if you are studying the MT and/or the LXX, and you’ve stumbled across this post, I hope you find something useful.

Part 1 of 3

Part 2 of 3

Part 3 of 3

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Dating the Scriptures (AI Research – Grok, ChatGPT, and Claude)

Torah (Pentateuch)

The first five books—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—are traditionally attributed to Moses but are now understood by most scholars as composite works from multiple sources (Yahwist, Elohist, Priestly, and Deuteronomic) compiled over centuries. Final redaction likely occurred during or after the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE).

Genesis: Likely compiled in its current form during the Persian period (538–332 BCE), though it incorporates earlier oral and written traditions from the 10th–6th centuries BCE. The creation stories, patriarchal narratives, and flood accounts reflect ancient Near Eastern motifs, with some elements possibly dating to the early monarchy (10th century BCE). The final shaping likely occurred post-Exile to address the needs of the returning community.
Exodus: Composed over time, with narrative cores (e.g., the Exodus event, covenant at Sinai) possibly rooted in 13th–10th-century BCE traditions. The Priestly and Deuteronomic elements were likely added during the 7th–5th centuries BCE, with final redaction in the Persian period (5th century BCE).
Leviticus: Primarily a Priestly work, likely composed between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE during or after the Exile, though some ritual laws may reflect earlier practices (8th–7th centuries BCE). Its focus on purity and temple worship suggests a post-Exilic context.
Numbers: A composite text with narrative and legal material, likely compiled in its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BCE). It incorporates earlier traditions, such as wilderness wanderings and census accounts, potentially from the 10th–7th centuries BCE, with Priestly and Deuteronomic additions in the 7th–5th centuries BCE. The final redaction reflects post-Exilic concerns about community identity and land allocation.
Deuteronomy: Likely composed in stages, with a core tied to the reforms of King Josiah (late 7th century BCE, c. 622 BCE), based on its alignment with the “Book of the Law” found in 2 Kings 22:8–10. Additional material was added during the Babylonian Exile (597–538 BCE) and finalized in the Persian period (5th century BCE). Its covenantal theology and legal code reflect both pre-Exilic and post-Exilic contexts.

Nevi’im (Prophets)

The Nevi’im include the Former Prophets (historical narratives: Joshua – 2 Kings) and Latter Prophets (prophetic oracles: Isaiah – Malachi). The Former Prophets form part of the Deuteronomistic History (DtH), likely compiled during the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE) with earlier sources. The Latter Prophets’ dates are tied to the historical periods of the named prophets, though redaction often occurred later.

Joshua: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled in the 6th century BCE during the Exile. It incorporates earlier traditions about the conquest of Canaan (potentially 13th–10th centuries BCE), but its final form reflects Exilic theology, emphasizing obedience to the covenant.
Judges: Also part of the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE. Stories of the judges likely stem from oral traditions of the pre-monarchic period (12th–11th centuries BCE), but the text’s structure and theological framing suggest Exilic redaction.
1 Samuel: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled c. 6th century BCE. It includes traditions about Samuel, Saul, and David from the early monarchy (11th–10th centuries BCE), redacted to emphasize divine kingship and covenant fidelity.
2 Samuel: Continues 1 Samuel, part of the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE. It draws on court records or oral traditions about David’s reign (10th century BCE), shaped by Exilic concerns about leadership and divine judgment.
1 Kings: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled c. 6th century BCE, with possible updates in the Persian period. It incorporates royal annals and temple records from the monarchic period (10th–7th centuries BCE), framed to explain the Exile as divine punishment.
2 Kings: Completes the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE, with a possible secondary redaction (Dtr2) post-562 BCE to account for Judah’s fall. It uses earlier sources from the divided monarchy (9th–7th centuries BCE).
Isaiah: A composite work spanning centuries. Chapters 1–39 (First Isaiah) are largely from the 8th century BCE (c. 740–700 BCE), attributed to Isaiah of Jerusalem. Chapters 40–55 (Second Isaiah) date to the late Exilic period (c. 550–538 BCE), and chapters 56–66 (Third Isaiah) to the early Persian period (c. 538–500 BCE). Redaction continued into the 5th century BCE.
Jeremiah: Core oracles from Jeremiah’s ministry in the late 7th–early 6th centuries BCE (c. 627–587 BCE). The book was likely edited during the Exile (6th century BCE) and finalized in the Persian period, incorporating prose narratives and later additions.
Ezekiel: Primarily from Ezekiel’s prophetic activity during the Exile (c. 593–571 BCE). The book’s final form, with its priestly and visionary content, was likely completed shortly after, c. 550 BCE.
Hosea: Oracles from Hosea’s ministry in the Northern Kingdom (c. 750–725 BCE), with possible redaction in Judah during or after the fall of Israel (722 BCE). Final form likely 7th–6th centuries BCE.
Joel: Difficult to date precisely due to lack of historical markers. Likely post-Exilic (5th–4th centuries BCE), though some argue for a pre-Exilic core (8th–7th centuries BCE). Its apocalyptic tone suggests a later composition.
Amos: Oracles from Amos’ ministry in the Northern Kingdom (c. 760–750 BCE), with possible Judahite redaction after 722 BCE. Final form likely 7th–6th centuries BCE.
Obadiah: Likely post-Exilic (5th century BCE), addressing Edom’s role in Judah’s fall (587 BCE). Some suggest an earlier core (7th–6th centuries BCE).
Jonah: Likely a post-Exilic composition (5th–4th centuries BCE) due to its narrative style and universalist themes. Some argue for a 6th-century BCE origin, but its fictional nature suggests a later date.
Micah: Oracles from Micah’s ministry (c. 740–700 BCE), with possible Exilic or post-Exilic additions (6th–5th centuries BCE). Final form likely 5th century BCE.
Nahum: Oracles concerning Nineveh’s fall (612 BCE), likely composed shortly after, c. 612–600 BCE, with possible later redaction.
Habakkuk: Oracles from the late 7th century BCE (c. 605–598 BCE), addressing Babylon’s rise. Final form likely early 6th century BCE.
Zephaniah: Oracles from Zephaniah’s ministry (c. 640–622 BCE), with possible Exilic redaction. Final form likely 6th–5th centuries BCE.
Haggai: Dated precisely to 520 BCE, based on internal references to the second year of Darius I. Minimal redaction, likely finalized shortly after.
Zechariah: Chapters 1–8 from Zechariah’s ministry (c. 520–518 BCE). Chapters 9–14 (Second Zechariah) are likely later, from the 5th–4th centuries BCE, due to distinct style and historical context.
Malachi: Post-Exilic, likely 5th century BCE (c. 450–400 BCE), addressing temple and social issues in the Persian period.

Ketuvim (Writings)

The Ketuvim include diverse genres (wisdom, poetry, history), with composition spanning a wide range. Many reached their final form in the Persian or Hellenistic periods.

Psalms: A collection spanning centuries, with individual psalms potentially from the 10th century BCE (Davidic period) to the 5th century BCE. The collection was likely finalized in the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE).
Proverbs: Contains older sayings (some possibly from Solomon’s time, 10th century BCE), but the collection was likely compiled in the Hellenistic period (c. 332–198 BCE), with final redaction in the 3rd century BCE.
Job: Likely composed in the 6th century BCE, post-Exile, though its poetic core may reflect earlier traditions (7th–6th centuries BCE). Its philosophical tone suggests a post-Exilic context.
Song of Songs: Possibly rooted in earlier love poetry (8th–7th centuries BCE), but likely compiled in the Persian or Hellenistic period (5th–3rd centuries BCE).
Ruth: Likely post-Exilic (5th–4th centuries BCE), reflecting Persian-period concerns about identity and inclusion. Some argue for an earlier monarchic setting (8th–7th centuries BCE).
Lamentations: Likely composed shortly after Jerusalem’s fall (587 BCE), with final form in the early 6th century BCE. Its poetic structure suggests rapid composition.
Ecclesiastes: Likely composed in the Hellenistic period (c. 3rd century BCE, possibly 250–200 BCE), due to its philosophical tone and linguistic features. Some suggest a 4th-century BCE origin.
Esther: Post-Exilic, likely 5th–4th centuries BCE, reflecting events in the Persian court. Its narrative style suggests a later date, possibly 4th century BCE.
Daniel: Chapters 1–6 likely from the 6th century BCE (Exilic), but chapters 7–12, with apocalyptic visions, date to the 2nd century BCE (c. 167–164 BCE), during the Maccabean revolt. Final form c. 164 BCE.
Ezra: Likely compiled in the Persian period (5th century BCE, c. 450–400 BCE), with sources from the return from Exile (538 BCE onward).
Nehemiah: Companion to Ezra, compiled c. 450–400 BCE, with memoir material from Nehemiah’s governorship (c. 445 BCE).
1 Chronicles: Likely 4th century BCE, post-Exilic, retelling Israel’s history with a focus on Davidic lineage and temple worship. Draws on earlier sources (e.g., Samuel, Kings) from the 10th–6th centuries BCE.
2 Chronicles: Companion to 1 Chronicles, also 4th century BCE, with similar sources and theological focus on Judah’s temple and monarchy.

Notes on Scholarship and Evidence

Earliest Evidence: The Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 2nd century BCE) provide the oldest surviving Hebrew manuscripts, confirming that many books were in near-final form by then. Earlier inscriptions, like the Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon (c. 1000 BCE), suggest Hebrew writing existed by the early monarchy, supporting the possibility of early written traditions.
Challenges: Dating relies on internal evidence (historical references, linguistic features) and external evidence (archaeology, ancient Near Eastern texts). The Documentary Hypothesis, though less dominant, informs Pentateuchal studies, while the Deuteronomistic History model shapes understanding of Joshua–Kings.
Debates: Conservative scholars (e.g., Edwin R. Thiele) argue for earlier dates, especially for Pentateuchal traditions (15th–13th centuries BCE), citing Mosaic influence. Critical scholars (e.g., John J. Collins, Israel Finkelstein) favor later dates, emphasizing Exilic and post-Exilic redaction. Archaeological evidence, like the Ketef Hinnom scroll (7th century BCE), supports pre-Exilic writing but not necessarily full texts.
Compilation Over Time: Most books evolved through oral traditions, written sources, and multiple redactions. For example, the Pentateuch’s final form reflects post-Exilic priorities, but earlier traditions may date back centuries. Prophetic books often combine a prophet’s oracles with later editorial framing.

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📜 The Torah / Pentateuch (Genesis – Deuteronomy)

Traditional attribution: Moses
Scholarly view: A compilation of sources over centuries

Book	Date	Notes
Genesis	10th–5th century BCE	Contains material from the J (Yahwist, ~950 BCE), E (Elohist, ~850 BCE), P (Priestly, ~6th century BCE), and D (Deuteronomist, ~7th century BCE) sources. Final form likely post-exilic (5th century BCE).
Exodus	Same as Genesis	Composite from J, E, P, and D traditions.
Leviticus	ca. 6th–5th century BCE	Primarily Priestly material, likely written or compiled during the Babylonian Exile.
Numbers	10th–5th century BCE	Composite like Genesis and Exodus. Final form post-exilic.
Deuteronomy	ca. 7th century BCE, with later edits	Core written during Josiah’s reforms (~620 BCE). Final form edited in exile or post-exile.

📘 Historical Books (Joshua – Esther)

Book	Date	Notes
Joshua	7th–6th century BCE	Possibly Deuteronomistic History; post-Josiah, edited in exile.
Judges	7th–6th century BCE	Part of the Deuteronomistic History (DtrH).
1 & 2 Samuel	7th–6th century BCE	Earlier sources from 10th–9th c. BCE; edited by Deuteronomistic historians.
1 & 2 Kings	6th century BCE	Finalized during Babylonian Exile; strong Deuteronomistic theology.
Ruth	5th–4th century BCE	Set in Judges era, but written later; some see it as a response to Ezra-Nehemiah’s exclusionary policies.
1 & 2 Chronicles	ca. 400–350 BCE	Post-exilic; retelling of Samuel–Kings from a priestly perspective.
Ezra–Nehemiah	ca. 400–350 BCE (some argue slightly later)	Compiled from earlier memoirs and edited in post-exilic period.
Esther	4th–3rd century BCE	Possibly fictional court tale with Persian setting; no direct mention of God.

🎙️ Wisdom and Poetry (Job – Song of Songs)

Book	Date	Notes
Job	Core: 6th–5th century BCE; edits later	Possibly written in exile; explores innocent suffering.
Psalms	ca. 10th–3rd century BCE	Collected over centuries; some psalms trace to Davidic era, others are post-exilic.
Proverbs	Core: 10th–6th century BCE; final: ~4th c.	Some sayings may be Solomonic; final compilation likely late Persian period.
Ecclesiastes	ca. 3rd century BCE	Philosophical reflections, traditionally attributed to Solomon.
Song of Songs	ca. 4th–3rd century BCE	Love poetry; possibly allegorical or secular; final form Hellenistic.
Lamentations	ca. 586–500 BCE	Likely written after the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon.

📢 Major Prophets (Isaiah – Daniel)

Book	Date	Notes
Isaiah	Parts from 8th–5th century BCE	Divided into First Isaiah (1–39) ~740–700 BCE, Second Isaiah (40–55) ~540 BCE (exilic), Third Isaiah (56–66) ~500–450 BCE (post-exilic).
Jeremiah	7th–6th century BCE	Contains autobiographical materials, later edited.
Ezekiel	ca. 593–571 BCE	Written during exile in Babylon.
Daniel	ca. 167–164 BCE	Set in Babylon, but written during Antiochus IV’s persecution; earliest example of apocalyptic literature in Bible.

📣 Minor Prophets (The Twelve)

Often collected as one book in the Hebrew Bible. Dates vary per prophet:

Book	Date
Hosea	8th century BCE (before 722 BCE)
Joel	ca. 500–350 BCE (disputed: some say earlier)
Amos	ca. 760–750 BCE
Obadiah	ca. 6th century BCE
Jonah	ca. 4th–3rd century BCE
Micah	ca. 740–700 BCE
Nahum	ca. 620–610 BCE
Habakkuk	ca. 610–597 BCE
Zephaniah	ca. 640–609 BCE
Haggai	520 BCE
Zechariah	Chapters 1–8: 520–518 BCE; 9–14: ~4th century
Malachi	ca. 450–400 BCE

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Based on the latest scholarly consensus, here’s a comprehensive list of when each Old Testament book is thought to have been written:

Torah (Five Books of Moses)

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy

The majority of modern biblical scholars believe that the Torah reached its present form in the post-exilic period (5th century BCE)
However, these books contain material from various periods, with some traditions potentially dating much earlier

Historical Books

Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings

This group of books, plus Deuteronomy, is called the “Deuteronomistic history” by scholars, appearing in two “editions”, the first in the reign of Judah’s King Josiah (late 7th century BCE), the second during the exile (6th century BCE)
Final form: 6th century BCE (Babylonian exile period)

1-2 Chronicles

Chronicles was composed between 400 and 250 BCE, probably in the period 350–300 BCE

Ezra-Nehemiah

Ezra–Nehemiah may have reached its final form as late as the Ptolemaic period, c. 300–200 BCE

Ruth

The Book of Ruth is commonly dated to the Persian period (538-332 BCE)

Esther

Esther to the 3rd or 4th centuries BCE

Poetic/Wisdom Literature

Job

It is generally agreed that Job comes from between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE

Psalms

The psalms making up the first two-thirds of the psalter are predominantly pre-exilic and the last third predominantly post-exilic. The collected book of Psalms was possibly given its modern shape and division into five parts in the post-exilic period, although it continued to be revised and expanded well into Hellenistic and even Roman times

Proverbs

Proverbs is a “collection of collections” relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium, and impossible to date
Contains material from various periods, making precise dating difficult

Ecclesiastes

Ecclesiastes can be no earlier than about 450 BCE, due to the presence of Persian loan-words and Aramaic idioms, and no later than 180 BCE

Song of Songs

The Song of Songs could have been composed at any time after the 6th century BCE

Lamentations

It is generally accepted that the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BCE forms the background to the Book of Lamentations

Major Prophets

Isaiah

Scholars recognise three “sections” in the Book of Isaiah
First Isaiah (chapters 1-39): 8th century BCE
Second Isaiah (chapters 40-55): 6th century BCE (exile period)
Third Isaiah (chapters 56-66): 5th century BCE (post-exilic)

Jeremiah

The Greek version was probably finalised in the early Persian period and translated into Greek in the 3rd century BCE, and the Hebrew version dates from some point between then and the 2nd century BCE

Ezekiel

Internal evidence dates the visions to between 593 and 571 BCE. While the book probably reflects much of the historic Ezekiel, it is the product of a long and complex history, with significant additions by a “school” of later followers

Daniel

The Book of Daniel can be dated more precisely to 164 BCE thanks to its veiled prophecy of the death of a Greek king of Syria

Minor Prophets

In the Hebrew Bible the Twelve Minor Prophets are a single collection edited in the Second Temple period, but the collection is broken up in Christian Bibles. With the exception of Jonah, which scholars regard as fictional, there exists an original core of prophetic tradition behind each book

The individual books span from the 8th century BCE (Amos, Hosea) to the post-exilic period (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi).

Key Points:

Much of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament may have been assembled in the 5th century BCE
Many books underwent complex editorial processes over centuries
Dating relies primarily on internal evidence and historical references
The final canonical form of most books was established during or after the Babylonian exile (6th-5th centuries BCE)

This represents the current scholarly consensus, though individual scholars may hold different views on specific books, and new archaeological discoveries continue to refine our understanding of biblical composition dates.

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Two Poems About Finding Your Way

I think these two poems, Lost by David Wagoner and Into My Own by Robert Frost, compliment each other well…

Some History Behind the Current Thailand/Cambodia Conflict (Video)

Reasons to Doubt the Supernatural Nature of Christianity

I’ve taught Apologetics before. I didn’t like it. I wouldn’t consider myself a Christian apologist as apologists are expected to come up with black and white answers to difficult issues. I do not believe there are black and white answers. Also, apologists seem less interested in discovering truth than they are defending presupposed dogmas.

However, as unlikely as it seems, there’s a chance I might teach the subject again. Therefore I thought, “What are some legitimate reasons why one would doubt the supernatural nature of Christianity?”

Here is my list…

Unfalsifiability of Christianity

Claims about heaven, hell, or divine judgment rely on post-mortem experiences, which are unverifiable in life, aligning with critiques of supernatural claims lacking empirical testability.

Christians cannot claim that living a faithful Christian life guarantees success or well-being in this life, nor that rejecting the Christian life necessarily leads to hardship or misfortune here and now. We know this from simple observation. Plenty of non-religious people live happy fulfilling lives, and plenty of Christians live difficult unhappy lives. The promise of whether things go good or bad for you can apply only to the after-life, which is unfalsifiable.

The hope found in the New Testament is grounded on the soon return of Christ, the transformation of the world, and the transformation of the individual bodies of believers. This leads to my next reason…

Failed Eschatological Expectations

New Testament passages suggest Jesus’ return was expected within the first century, which didn’t occur, undermining divine foresight.

Modern Christians have no clear explanation for what happens at death since the New Testament doesn’t teach it. The authors of the New Testament did not expect the world to continue on for thousands of years after Pentecost. The New Testament authors expected the Parousia (return of Christ, resurrection/transformation of bodies, judgement) to happen within their own lifetimes or shortly after.

The Parousia did not happen at that time, nor has it happened from that time till now. This calls into question the divine inspiration of the New Testament writings.

I can also include here the issue of the scripture’s focus on national Israel and the covenant promises. The New Covenant was promised only to Israel (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-13). While it is true that Paul preached the gospel to the gentile world, his primary concern was Israel, which is why he always began his preaching in the synagogues. He clearly was passionate about Israel embracing their New Covenant gospel (Romans 9:1-5). And while I am not a proponent of the Israel Only movement, one can ask, “What if the original Jesus movement, a sect within Judaism, was only a failed Israelite eschatology?”

Persistence of Evil Under Divine Rule/Absence of Physical Manifestation/Decline of Verifiable Miracles

If Jesus reigns as a divine king, the ongoing existence of suffering and injustice suggests a lack of observable supernatural governance or intervention.

Despite theological claims of Jesus’ ongoing divine presence, the lack of any verifiable physical manifestation calls into question the active role or power of a supernatural agent.

Whereas early Christian accounts abound with miracles, such as healings and resurrections, modern times lack consistent, empirically verified equivalents, raising doubts about the reliability of early miracle claims.

I’ve combined three reasons here into one as they all have to do with the tangible presence of Christ in the current world.

Since the Parousia did not happen in the first century, the Church had to adopt a new way of seeing things. For the most part the Church began to teach that the kingdom of Christ is partially manifest in the Church, and that Christ rules in the hearts of believers. There will still be a future Parousia and history as we know it will end.

One can ask then, “What has actually changed in the world post-Pentecost?” If Jesus is king, what exactly is he king over? The world? The Church? Heaven? He doesn’t appear to be ruling the world, at least not in any obvious way. Perhaps he is king over the Church, but the Church is so fragmented (see reason #7) that he could only be king over an invisible Church: the “true believers,” whoever they may be. Only God knows. We might say he reigns over heaven, which we presume to be perfect. Since we cannot see heaven, we cannot verify this.

Spread of Christianity Through Natural Means

Christianity’s global expansion correlates with historical forces such as imperial conquest, colonialism, demographic trends, and migration—factors that suggest a sociopolitical rather than supernatural spread.

Has the spread of Christianity over the last two thousand years been remarkably different than the spread of any other religion?

Syncretism with Pre-Christian Traditions/Parallels with Other Religious Traditions/Shift from Jewish Sect to Gentile Religion

Many Christian customs have clear roots in earlier pagan traditions, indicating a blending of cultural practices rather than the emergence of a wholly distinct revelation.

Christianity shares core motifs (such as virgin births and dying-and-rising gods) with older mythologies, implying that its supernatural claims may stem from universal myth-making rather than unique divine revelation.

Christianity’s shift from a Jewish Messianic sect to a Gentile-dominated religion suggests human-driven evolution rather than divine preservation.

I’ve again combined three points here to highlight the evolution of religion throughout time. Many scholars agree that pre-exilic Israel was shaped by the dominant cultures surrounding it in the formation of its theocratic system. Likewise, post-exilic Second Temple Judaism was significantly influenced by Zoroastrian and Hellenistic thought. Christianity, which began as a Jewish sect, is often seen as a synthesis of Jewish tradition and elements from first-century mystery religions. Over time, it evolved into a predominantly Gentile movement. These developments suggest a gradual, human-driven evolution of religious ideas rather than a singular, divinely revealed system.

Theological Discontinuity Between Testaments/Moral Progress Beyond Scripture

The portrayal of God in the Old Testament (wrathful and nationalistic) differs markedly from the loving and universal God of modern Christianity, suggesting doctrinal evolution shaped by cultural change rather than consistent divine character.

Modern ethical stances (e.g., the condemnation of slavery) often diverge from or contradict biblical teachings, indicating that moral advancement may arise from secular humanism rather than scriptural guidance.

I am not comparing God as portrayed in the Old Testament to God as portrayed in the New Testament here as much as I am comparing God as portrayed in the Old and New Testaments to God as portrayed by modern Christians. Modern Christians tend to read the Old Testament allegorically, and even Fundamentalists struggle to reconcile the differences.

Fragmentation Within Christianity/Subjectivity in Scriptural Interpretation

Theological and cultural divisions across denominations (e.g., Evangelical, Catholic, Eastern Orthodox) suggest Christianity is not a unified divine revelation but a diverse, evolving human tradition.

The need for personal or ecclesiastical interpretation of scripture underscores the role of human subjectivity in defining doctrine, weakening claims of an objective or universally clear divine message.

Christianity exhibits such a high degree of internal diversity that one expression of the faith may, in practice, function as a distinct religion from another. For example, American Evangelicalism and Syrian Orthodoxy differ so significantly in theology, worship, and worldview that they can be seen as fundamentally separate religious traditions.

Personality often plays a significant role in shaping the style of Christianity a person gravitates toward. For example, someone devoted to John MacArthur’s church is unlikely to transition to a Charismatic congregation. While he may claim his reasons are purely scriptural, it’s more likely that his theological preferences align with his personality (which, of course, includes his politics).

Modern Biblical Scholarship and Archaeology

Scholarship questions the historicity of key biblical events (e.g., Exodus, Canaanite conquests), and textual criticism highlights inconsistencies in manuscripts, undermining claims of divine inspiration.

Did Moses write the Pentateuch? Or was it written by several authors and compiled later? Did the exodus out of Egypt actually happen? Did Daniel write Daniel? Did Daniel exist? Or was the book of Daniel Maccabean propaganda? Who wrote the gospels? Did Paul write all the letters attributed to him?

Modern scholars differ much in their opinions, and I find they often overstate their arguments. However, their work cannot simply be dismissed because it contradicts traditional Christian beliefs.

Psychological and Sociological Explanations for Religious Experience

Neuroscience and psychology offer naturalistic explanations for spiritual experiences (e.g., visions, divine presence) as brain-based phenomena, and sociological factors like community bonding explain Christianity’s appeal.

Worship services with dimmed lighting and emotional music absolutely influence how a person feels about what they perceive to be Jesus. This isn’t just true of modern western services, but it is true of ancient style Orthodox services as well.

It’s easy to see, especially with productions like The Chosen, that Christians will form their religion to fit their specific needs and desires. One would think it would be impossible to turn Jesus into a false idol, but how can modern Christians be sure that’s not exactly what they’re doing?

David Bentley Hart and Eschatology

David Bentley Hart (an Eastern Orthodox scholar), in a series of articles concerning eschatology, writes: “[B]iblical eschatology is of its very nature … somewhat obscure on the actual details of how things end. Whatever it tells us—or hints at for us—comes in the often unintelligible form of elaborate symbolic fantasias and infuriatingly elliptical metaphors, all pronounced with an urgency soon belied by history’s perversely persistent failure to end. If we are to be strict and fastidious literalists about the language of scripture, the Lord, it would seem, has been coming “quickly” for two millennia now; the hour has been late since the days of the Caesars; the world that is passing away is doing so with all the hectic dispatch of molasses flowing uphill in February.”

Other than a shared expectation of a soon fulfillment of eschatological expectations, the New Testament authors give us no consolidated narrative. The traditional Christian eschatological storyline (Christ’s second coming, general resurrection, final judgment, eternal Kingdom) is not found in a unified form. Texts like Paul’s epistles, the Gospel of John, and Revelation offer distinct visions.

“My claims regarding the early Christian sense of a rapidly approaching ‘eschaton’ are, before all else, claims regarding the first epoch of the church as an association of believers in Christ who harbored a large variety of apocalyptic expectations, at once intrahistorical, truly eschatological, wholly eternal, or combining two or more of these in an indeterminate haze of anxious anticipation, fear, and hope. And I assume that it was only a sense of the imminent realization of those expectations that imposed any sort of uniformity on what was otherwise a farraginous collection of religious, political, cosmic, and psychological aspirations. The things that were coming soon from God—the things that lay just over the horizon of the present—were imagined in many forms and modalities, temporal and atemporal and both at once; but what was beyond doubt was that they absolutely must happen very soon (δεῖ γενέσθει ἐν τάχει, as the first verse of Revelation says), and this was the uniform confession and profoundly unified experience of believers.” (Hart)

Below is a summary of the various views of eschatology and resurrection the NT authors had, as presented by Hart in his articles…

1. Paul (Authentic Epistles: Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon)

Eschatology: Paul’s eschatology is marked by an imminent expectation of Christ’s return (parousia) to consummate the present age and inaugurate the Kingdom (1 Thessalonians 4:13-17). He envisions a cosmic transformation where the “Age to Come” replaces the current order (1 Corinthians 15:24-28). Judgment is ambiguous, sometimes suggesting a selective process for the saved (Romans 8:11) and other times hinting at universal salvation (Romans 5:18; 1 Corinthians 15:28). Condemnation, if it occurs, consigns the reprobate to the past, not eternal torment (1 Corinthians 3:12-15). Paul’s focus is both intrahistorical (imminent divine intervention) and eternal (cosmic renewal).
Resurrection: Resurrection is central to Paul’s theology, equated with salvation itself (1 Corinthians 15:42-50). It involves a transformation from a mortal “psychical body” (σῶμα ψυχικόν, animated by soul and flesh) to an imperishable “spiritual body” (σῶμα πνευματικόν), composed of spirit (πνεῦμα), akin to angelic or celestial beings. This transformation is conflated with an ascent through celestial spheres in Christ’s train at his return (1 Thessalonians 4:16-17; Philippians 3:20). Resurrection is primarily for the righteous, though universalist passages suggest broader inclusion (Romans 5:18).
Key Features: Paul’s eschatology is future-oriented but imminent, with a strong universalist undercurrent. Resurrection is a cosmic, spiritual event, reflecting first-century cosmology where spirit is a subtle, incorruptible element.

2. Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, Luke)

Eschatology: The Synoptics blend intrahistorical and eternal horizons, with a strong preterist emphasis on first-century events, particularly the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE (Olivet Discourse: Mark 13; Matthew 24; Luke 21). Jesus’ prophecies use prophetic idioms (e.g., Isaiah 65:17-25) to depict historical calamities as cosmic upheavals, targeting the rich and powerful for their oppression (Matthew 25:31-46). Judgment is often intrahistorical (e.g., within a generation, Matthew 24:34), but a secondary eschatological horizon of divine justice looms (Matthew 11:22-24:11). The Kingdom is both imminent (Luke 11:20) and present within believers (Luke 17:20-21), with varied fates for the unrighteous (e.g., destruction, exclusion, temporary chastisement). Matthew’s allegory of judgment (Matthew 25:31-46) is a gathering of nations, not a resurrection event. Mark mentions resurrection only once (Mark 12:25), and Luke links it to the righteous (Luke 14:14).
Resurrection: In the dispute with the Sadducees (Mark 12:25; Matthew 22:30; Luke 20:35-36), Jesus describes the resurrected as “like angels” or “equal to angels” (ἰσάγγελοι), implying a spiritual, eternal existence free from marriage and death. Resurrection is not clearly tied to judgment, and its nature remains ambiguous. Luke’s depiction of the risen Christ with “flesh and bones” (Luke 24:39) contrasts with this angelic vision, suggesting potential inconsistency or redaction. Mark’s minimal focus on resurrection may align with spiritual ascent or soul revival.
Key Features: The Synoptics’ eschatology is heavily preterist, with metaphorical language tied to historical events. Resurrection is symbolic and ambiguous, often reserved for the righteous, with a focus on ethical transformation.

3. Gospel of John

Eschatology: John’s eschatology is predominantly realized, emphasizing the present reality of eternal life through faith in Christ (John 5:24; 11:25). The Kingdom is marginalized, replaced by “eternal life” (aiōnios zōē), which collapses future expectations into the now. Judgment is immediate, occurring in Christ’s crucifixion, which casts out the world’s Archon and draws all to himself (John 12:31-32). While a future resurrection and judgment are mentioned (John 5:28-29), these are qualified as already present (John 5:25: “the hour is coming”). The “last day” is the cross, where history and eternity meet (John 12:48). John’s universalist tone suggests all are redeemed through Christ’s act (John 12:32).
Resurrection: Resurrection is both a future event (John 5:28-29) and a present reality (John 11:25: “I am the resurrection and the life”). Believers already possess eternal life through faith, transcending death (John 6:47; 8:51). Resurrection is an ascent to a supercelestial reality, described as aiōnios, likely indicating a divine, eternal realm akin to Plato’s Timaeus. John lacks a final ascension scene, portraying Christ as continually present (John 20:19-28).
Key Features: John’s eschatology is radically present-focused, with judgment and resurrection fulfilled in Christ’s life, death, and resurrection. The universalist vision reconciles historical and eternal horizons.

4. 1 Peter

Eschatology: 1 Peter has a future-oriented eschatology, anticipating Christ’s return and final judgment (1 Peter 4:7). However, it also hints at a realized dimension, with Christ’s resurrection enabling spiritual actions (e.g., preaching to the “spirits in prison,” 1 Peter 3:18-19). Judgment is linked to historical suffering and divine vindication, but not explicitly tied to a universal resurrection.
Resurrection: Christ’s resurrection is described as a transformation from flesh to spirit (1 Peter 3:18: “put to death in flesh, made alive in spirit”), enabling him to enter spiritual realms. This aligns with Paul’s spiritual body concept, suggesting a non-carnal, angelic existence for the resurrected.
Key Features: 1 Peter bridges future and realized eschatology, with resurrection as a spiritual transformation, reinforcing the apostolic view of an imperishable state.

5. Hebrews

Eschatology: Hebrews shifts from imminent historical expectations to a vertical, transcendent eschatology. Christ’s second coming is mentioned (Hebrews 9:28), but the focus is on his present role as High Priest in the heavenly sanctuary (Hebrews 4:14; 8:1). Salvation is an ascent to the “world above,” emphasizing a timeless divine reality over future consummation.
Resurrection: Resurrection is implicit in the ascent to the heavenly places, where believers are drawn by Christ’s priestly work (Hebrews 6:19-20). It is not detailed but aligns with a spiritual, non-carnal transformation.
Key Features: Hebrews prioritizes a vertical eschatology, with resurrection as a spiritual ascent, reflecting a shift from historical to eternal concerns.

6. Pseudo-Pauline Texts (Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 2 Timothy)

Eschatology: These texts reflect responses to delayed expectations. Ephesians and Colossians emphasize a realized eschatology, with believers already “raised” and “seated” with Christ in heavenly places (Ephesians 2:6; Colossians 3:1-2), though future consummation is noted (Ephesians 1:10). 2 Thessalonians, likely non-Pauline, introduces an intermediate period of apostasy and the “man of lawlessness” to explain Christ’s delay (2 Thessalonians 2:1-3), insisting on future divine intervention. 2 Timothy refutes claims of a mystical resurrection, maintaining future imminence (2 Timothy 2:17-18).
Resurrection: Ephesians and Colossians view resurrection as a present spiritual reality, aligning with John’s eternal life. 2 Thessalonians and 2 Timothy anticipate a future bodily resurrection, possibly for both just and unjust (Acts 24:15, though not pseudo-Pauline).
Key Features: These texts show a transition from Paul’s imminent eschatology to realized or adjusted expectations, with resurrection varying from present to future.

7. Revelation

Eschatology: Revelation is primarily preterist, focusing on the fall of Rome and the establishment of a new Jerusalem (Revelation 21:1-5). It adopts apocalyptic imagery, including a millennial messianic reign and two resurrections (Revelation 20:4-6), but these inaugurate a new epoch, not history’s end. Judgment is symbolic, tied to political and spiritual aspirations rather than a final cosmic assize.
Resurrection: The first resurrection is for martyrs during the millennial reign, the second a universal judgment (Revelation 20:11-15). Both are symbolic, reflecting anti-Roman hopes rather than literal eschatology.
Key Features: Revelation’s eschatology is allegorical and preterist, with resurrections as political symbols, not doctrinal statements.

Differences in New Testament Eschatology and Resurrection

Author/Text	Eschatology (Kingdom, Judgment)	Resurrection	Key Features
Paul (Authentic)	Imminent parousia, cosmic transformation (1 Thess 4:13-17). Judgment ambiguous, possibly universal (Rom 5:18). Kingdom is future “Age to Come” (1 Cor 15:24-28).	Spiritual transformation into imperishable “spiritual body” (1 Cor 15:42-50), conflated with celestial ascent (1 Thess 4:16-17). Primarily for righteous.	Future-oriented, universalist hints, spiritual resurrection, first-century cosmology.
Synoptics (Mark, Matthew, Luke)	Preterist focus on AD 70 (Olivet Discourse: Mk 13; Mt 24; Lk 21). Judgment intrahistorical (Mt 25:31-46) with eternal horizon. Kingdom imminent and present (Lk 17:20-21).	Angelic, non-carnal existence (Mk 12:25; Lk 20:35-36). Vague, possibly for righteous only (Lk 14:14). Luke’s “flesh and bones” (Lk 24:39) inconsistent.	Metaphorical, preterist, ethical focus, ambiguous resurrection.
John	Realized eschatology: eternal life now (Jn 5:24; 11:25). Judgment immediate, on cross (Jn 12:31-32). Kingdom marginalized, universalist tone.	Present eternal life through faith (Jn 11:25), also future (Jn 5:28-29). Ascent to supercelestial reality, no final ascension scene (Jn 20:19-28).	Radically present, universalist, eternal life as aiōnios reality.
1 Peter	Future-oriented, with Christ’s return and judgment (1 Pet 4:7). Some realized elements (1 Pet 3:18-19).	Christ’s resurrection as shift to spirit (1 Pet 3:18), enabling spiritual realms. Aligns with Paul’s spiritual body.	Bridges future and realized, spiritual resurrection.
Hebrews	Vertical, transcendent eschatology. Christ as High Priest in heaven (Heb 4:14). Future coming secondary (Heb 9:28).	Implicit as spiritual ascent to heavenly places (Heb 6:19-20), non-carnal.	Vertical focus, present salvation, minimal resurrection detail.
Pseudo-Pauline (Eph, Col, 2 Thess, 2 Tim)	Mixed: realized in Eph/Col (Eph 2:6), future with delays in 2 Thess (2:1-3), 2 Tim (2:17-18). Judgment varies.	Present spiritual raising (Eph 2:6; Col 3:1-2) or future bodily (2 Thess, 2 Tim, cf. Acts 24:15).	Transition from imminent to realized or adjusted, varied resurrection views.
Revelation	Preterist, anti-Roman focus (Rev 21:1-5). Millennial reign, symbolic judgments (Rev 20:11-15). New epoch, not history’s end.	Two symbolic resurrections: martyrs’ reign, universal judgment (Rev 20:4-6). Political, not doctrinal.	Allegorical, preterist, symbolic resurrections, political critique.