Author: HV Voogd

The Interpretive Method of New Testament Authors

  1. Typological Interpretation (or Typology):
  • Definition: Typology involves seeing OT events, figures, or institutions as “types” (patterns or foreshadowings) that prefigure or are fulfilled by Christ, the church, or other NT realities. The NT author interprets the OT text as pointing to a greater fulfillment in Jesus or the Christian community.
  • Example: In Matthew 2:15, Hosea 11:1 (“Out of Egypt I called my son”) originally refers to Israel’s exodus but is applied typologically to Jesus as the true Israel who recapitulates and fulfills the nation’s story.
  • Characteristics: Typology assumes historical correspondence and escalation, where the OT event is real but finds a deeper, often messianic, significance in the NT.

2. Pesher Interpretation:

  • Definition: Pesher (from Hebrew, meaning “interpretation”) is a method where OT texts are applied directly to contemporary events or figures, often with an eschatological (end-times) focus. This was common in Jewish exegesis, notably in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and is used by NT authors to show how OT prophecies are fulfilled in their time.
  • Example: Matthew 2:17–18 applies Jeremiah 31:15 (Rachel’s weeping) to the Bethlehem massacre, treating the OT text as prophetically fulfilled in Jesus’ era.
  • Characteristics: Pesher often reads OT texts as cryptic predictions that find their true meaning in the present, sometimes stretching the original context.

3. Midrashic Interpretation:

  • Definition: Midrash (from Hebrew, meaning “to search” or “expound”) is a Jewish interpretive method that creatively elaborates on OT texts to draw out moral, theological, or allegorical meanings. NT authors, especially Paul, use midrashic techniques to apply OT texts to new situations.
  • Example: In 1 Corinthians 9:9–10, Paul uses Deuteronomy 25:4 (“Do not muzzle an ox”) midrashically to argue for supporting Christian ministers, extending the law’s principle beyond its literal meaning.
  • Characteristics: Midrash often involves allegory, analogy, or recontextualization to make the text relevant to a new audience.

4. Allegorical Interpretation:

  • Definition: Allegory treats OT texts as having hidden or symbolic meanings that point to spiritual truths, often beyond the literal sense. While less common in the NT than typology, it appears in some instances, particularly in Paul’s writings.
  • Example: In Galatians 4:21–31, Paul allegorizes the story of Hagar and Sarah (Genesis 16–21) to represent the old and new covenants, respectively, a clear departure from the historical narrative.
  • Characteristics: Allegory seeks deeper, symbolic meanings, sometimes detaching from the original context.

5. Fulfillment Citation:

  • Definition: This term is used specifically for NT quotations introduced with phrases like “this was to fulfill” (common in Matthew) or “as it is written.” It reflects the NT authors’ belief that OT texts find their ultimate purpose or completion in Christ and the church, even if the original context was not explicitly prophetic.
  • Example: Matthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14 (“the virgin shall conceive”) as fulfilled in Jesus’ virgin birth, despite its original context as a sign for King Ahaz.
  • Characteristics: The focus is on Christological fulfillment, often reinterpreting non-prophetic texts as messianic.

Chart of Some NT Reinterpretations of OT Passages

NT ReferenceOT SourceOT ContextNT UsageShift in MeaningMethod
Matthew 2:15Hosea 11:1God’s historical deliverance of Israel from Egypt, called His “son.”Jesus’ return from Egypt, fulfilling Israel’s role.Historical event becomes a typological prophecy about Jesus.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 1:23Isaiah 7:14Sign for King Ahaz about a child named Immanuel, born to a young woman.Jesus’ virgin birth, using Septuagint’s “virgin.”Historical sign becomes a messianic prophecy.Pesher/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 2:17–18Jeremiah 31:15Rachel’s mourning for Israel’s exile, with hope for restoration.Bethlehem infants’ massacre.Historical lament reframed as a fulfilled tragedy.Pesher/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 3:3Isaiah 40:3Preparing a way for God’s deliverance of Israel from exile.John the Baptist preparing for Jesus.Exile restoration prophecy fulfilled in John’s ministry.Pesher
John 19:36Psalm 34:20 (possibly Exodus 12:46)God’s protection of the righteous or Passover lamb regulations.Jesus’ unbroken bones at crucifixion.General protection or ritual rule becomes a specific prophecy.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Acts 15:16–18Amos 9:11–12Restoration of Israel’s kingdom, dominance over Edom.Gentile inclusion in the church, using Septuagint’s “mankind.”National restoration becomes universal salvation.Pesher
Romans 9:25–26Hosea 2:23, 1:10Restoration of Israel after judgment, called “my people.”Gentiles becoming God’s people through faith.Israel’s restoration extended to Gentiles.Midrash/Typology
Romans 10:6–8Deuteronomy 30:12–14Accessibility of the Torah for obedience.“Word of faith” in Christ, accessible through faith.Torah’s accessibility becomes salvation through Christ.Midrash
1 Corinthians 9:9–10 / 1 Timothy 5:18Deuteronomy 25:4Law against muzzling an ox while treading grain.Material support for Christian ministers.Agricultural law reinterpreted for human laborers in ministry.Midrash/Allegory
2 Corinthians 6:16–18Leviticus 26:12, Ezekiel 37:27, 2 Samuel 7:14God’s covenant presence with Israel or Davidic king.Church as God’s temple and people, including Gentiles.Israel/Davidic promises applied to the church.Pesher/Midrash
Galatians 3:16Genesis 12:7Promise of land to Abraham’s descendants (plural).“Offspring” as Christ, the singular heir.Collective promise narrowed to Jesus.Midrash/Typology
Galatians 4:21–31Genesis 16–21Historical narrative of Hagar and Sarah, Abraham’s sons.Allegory of old (law) and new (faith) covenants.Family story becomes allegory for law vs. faith.Midrash/Allegory
Hebrews 1:5Psalm 2:7God’s adoption of the Davidic king at coronation.Jesus’ eternal divine sonship.Royal coronation becomes Christ’s divinity.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Hebrews 10:5–7Psalm 40:6–8Obedience over sacrifice in personal worship.Jesus’ incarnation and sacrificial death.General worship statement becomes messianic prophecy.Midrash/Typology
1 Corinthians 15:54–55Isaiah 25:8, Hosea 13:14God’s future defeat of death or taunt against death.Christ’s resurrection defeating death.General/judgmental texts become resurrection triumph.Pesher

Notes on the Chart

  • Columns:
    • NT Reference: The NT passage where the OT is quoted or alluded to.
    • OT Source: The specific OT verse(s) or passage(s) referenced.
    • OT Context: The original meaning or historical setting of the OT text.
    • NT Usage: How the NT author applies the OT text.
    • Shift in Meaning: How the NT usage differs from or expands the original OT meaning.
    • Interpretive Method: The primary method(s) used (typology, pesher, midrash, allegory), based on the definitions provided earlier.
  • Interpretive Methods:
    • Typology: OT events/figures as patterns fulfilled in Christ or the church.
    • Pesher: OT texts as prophecies fulfilled in the NT era.
    • Midrash: Creative elaboration to draw out new theological meanings.
    • Allegory: Symbolic reinterpretation, often detaching from the literal sense.
    • Fulfillment Citation: OT texts seen as completed in Christ, often with “this was to fulfill” phrasing.

Four Gospels Parallel Reading Chart in Chronological Order

I had AI create this simplified chart so that I could read the four gospels in parallel…

This chart organizes the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) in parallel, arranged in chronological order to facilitate reading the accounts of Jesus’ life and ministry side by side. Each row represents a key event or teaching, with corresponding passages listed for each Gospel. Blank cells indicate that a Gospel does not include that event. Read each row’s passages to follow the narrative chronologically across all four accounts.

Event/PericopeMatthewMarkLukeJohn
Prologue and Early Life
Genealogy of Jesus1:1-173:23-38
Annunciation to Mary1:26-38
Birth of Jesus1:18-252:1-7
Shepherds Visit2:8-20
Magi Visit2:1-12
Flight to Egypt2:13-15
Return to Nazareth2:19-232:39
Jesus at Age 12 in Temple2:41-52
Preparation for Ministry
John the Baptist’s Ministry3:1-121:1-83:1-181:19-28
Baptism of Jesus3:13-171:9-113:21-221:29-34
Temptation of Jesus4:1-111:12-134:1-13
Early Judean Ministry (Mostly John)
Wedding at Cana2:1-11
First Temple Cleansing2:13-22
Nicodemus Visits Jesus3:1-21
Samaritan Woman at the Well4:1-42
Galilean Ministry
Call of the First Disciples4:18-221:16-205:1-11
Healing of Official’s Son4:46-54
Rejection at Nazareth4:16-30
Healing of Peter’s Mother-in-Law8:14-151:29-314:38-39
Sermon on the Mount5:1–7:296:20-49
Healing of the Centurion’s Servant8:5-137:1-10
Raising of Widow’s Son7:11-17
Sending of the Twelve10:1-426:7-139:1-6
Beheading of John the Baptist14:1-126:14-299:7-9
Feeding of the 5,00014:13-216:30-449:10-176:1-15
Walking on Water14:22-336:45-526:16-21
Peter’s Confession of Christ16:13-208:27-309:18-21
Transfiguration17:1-139:2-139:28-36
Later Judean and Perean Ministry
Healing of Blind Bartimaeus20:29-3410:46-5218:35-43
Parable of the Good Samaritan10:25-37
Mary and Martha10:38-42
Raising of Lazarus11:1-44
Plot to Kill Jesus11:45-54
Passion Week
Triumphal Entry21:1-1111:1-1119:28-4412:12-19
Second Temple Cleansing21:12-1311:15-1919:45-48
Cursing of the Fig Tree21:18-2211:12-14, 20-25
Olivet Discourse24:1–25:4613:1-3721:5-36
Anointing at Bethany26:6-1314:3-912:1-8
Last Supper26:17-3014:12-2622:7-3813:1–17:26
Betrayal by Judas26:47-5614:43-5222:47-5318:2-12
Peter’s Denial26:69-7514:66-7222:54-6218:15-18, 25-27
Trial Before Pilate27:11-2615:1-1523:1-2518:28–19:16
Crucifixion27:32-5615:21-4123:26-4919:16-37
Burial27:57-6115:42-4723:50-5619:38-42
Resurrection and Post-Resurrection
Resurrection Morning28:1-1016:1-824:1-1220:1-18
Road to Emmaus16:12-1324:13-35
Appearance to Disciples28:16-2016:14-1824:36-4920:19-29
Ascension24:50-53

How to Use This Chart

  • Daily Reading: Read the passages listed in each row across all four Gospels to compare accounts of the same event. Skip blank cells where a Gospel does not cover the event.
  • Chronological Flow: The events are ordered to reflect the likely sequence of Jesus’ life, starting with his birth and ending with the Ascension.
  • Study Notes: For deeper study, note differences in details (e.g., Matthew’s emphasis on fulfilled prophecy, John’s focus on theological dialogues) as you read parallel passages.
  • Time Estimate: Reading one row per day (approximately 70 rows) would take about 2–3 months, depending on reading speed and reflection time.

Eschatological Drift

Theology often adapts to historical events, which helps explain the different views on the end times (eschatology) even among early Christians. For instance, in letters written before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in AD 70, Paul never links Christ’s return (the Parousia), the resurrection, or judgment to that event. Instead, he focuses on a general, future hope for all believers (e.g., 1 Corinthians 15:23; 1 Thessalonians 4:16), without mentioning the temple, which was still standing at the time.

In contrast, the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), likely written after the temple was destroyed, directly connect its fall to the Parousia. They portray the temple’s destruction as a sign of coming judgment and a lead-up to Christ’s return (Mark 13:2, 24–27; Matthew 24:2, 29–31; Luke 21:6, 20–28). Even so, they still view the resurrection as a future event, hinted at through symbols like the trumpet (Matthew 24:31) and affirmed in other teachings (Mark 12:25; Matthew 22:30; Luke 20:36).

Later still, the Gospel of John (written around AD 90–100) does not mention the temple’s destruction in relation to the Parousia or resurrection. Instead, it emphasizes a more spiritual or “realized” view of Christ’s presence now, while still affirming a future bodily resurrection (John 5:24–29). This reflects a shift toward a more universal theological perspective, no longer centered on the events of AD 70.

This development—from Paul’s silence on the temple, to the Synoptics’ focus on it, to John’s move beyond it—shows how early Christian beliefs about the end times evolved in response to historical changes.

1 Maccabees and Daniel 11

Below is a comparative list of 1 Maccabees and Daniel 11…

Comparative List and Chronological Alignment

1 Maccabees EventDaniel 11 ReferenceChronological Alignment (Approximate Dates)Notes
Seleucid oppression begins under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (1 Macc 1:10–20): Antiochus IV becomes king (175 BCE) and plunders Jerusalem, taking temple treasures.Dan 11:21–24: A “contemptible person” (Antiochus IV) seizes the kingdom through intrigue, plunders wealth, and distributes spoil.c. 175–170 BCEBoth texts describe Antiochus IV’s rise and early actions. Daniel’s prophecy symbolically portrays his deceit and greed, matching 1 Maccabees’ historical account of his looting.
Antiochus IV’s religious persecution (1 Macc 1:20–64): Antiochus bans Jewish practices (c. 167 BCE), desecrates the temple with a pagan altar (“abomination of desolation”), and enforces Hellenistic worship.Dan 11:31: “Forces from him shall profane the sanctuary… and set up the abomination that makes desolate.”c. 167 BCEThe “abomination of desolation” in Daniel aligns with the temple desecration in 1 Maccabees, often identified as the altar to Zeus in the Jerusalem temple.
Maccabean Revolt begins (1 Macc 2:1–70): Mattathias and his sons (Judas Maccabeus) resist Seleucid oppression, sparking the revolt (c. 167–166 BCE).Dan 11:32: “The people who know their God shall stand firm and take action.”c. 167–166 BCEDaniel’s reference to a faithful remnant resisting aligns with the Maccabean uprising, though Daniel is less specific about the revolt’s leaders or details.
Judas Maccabeus’ victories (1 Macc 3:1–4:35): Judas wins battles against Seleucid generals (e.g., Apollonius, Seron, Gorgias) and recaptures Jerusalem, rededicating the temple (164 BCE).Dan 11:32–33: The faithful “shall receive a little help” and continue to resist, though some fall.c. 166–164 BCEThe “little help” in Daniel may allude to Judas’ early successes, though the prophecy remains vague. The temple rededication (Hanukkah) is not explicitly mentioned in Daniel.
Antiochus IV’s campaigns and death (1 Macc 6:1–16): Antiochus IV campaigns in the east, falls ill, and dies (164 BCE).Dan 11:40–45: The King of the North engages in campaigns, faces turmoil, and dies with “no one to help him.”c. 164 BCEBoth texts describe Antiochus IV’s eastern campaigns and death, though Daniel’s account is more symbolic and debated (some see Dan 11:40–45 as future or unfulfilled prophecy).
Continued Seleucid conflicts (1 Macc 6:18–9:57): After Antiochus IV’s death, the Maccabees face ongoing wars under Antiochus V and Demetrius I, with Judas dying (160 BCE).Dan 11:35–39: Ongoing struggles for the faithful, with some falling, until “the time of the end.”c. 164–160 BCEDaniel’s vague reference to continued persecution may correspond to post-Antiochus IV conflicts in 1 Maccabees, but the prophecy shifts toward an eschatological tone.
Hasmonean consolidation (1 Macc 10:1–16:24): Jonathan and Simon establish Hasmonean rule, achieving relative independence (c. 160–134 BCE).No clear parallel in Daniel 11c. 160–134 BCEDaniel 11 does not clearly address the later Hasmonean period, focusing instead on earlier Seleucid conflicts or possibly an eschatological future.