All theological positions are based on one’s philosophy of life, not the scriptures.
It’s like a game of Dodgeball. The team you’re on is determined by your philosophical presuppositions. The scriptures are just the balls being thrown around.
Chart of Events/Figures in Both Josephus and Acts
| Event/Figure | Description in Acts | Description in Josephus | Approximate Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Herod Agrippa I’s Death | Acts 12:20–23 describes Herod being struck down by God and eaten by worms after accepting divine worship. | Antiquities 19.8.2 describes Agrippa’s death at Caesarea, struck by illness during a festival, possibly due to poisoning or divine punishment. | 44 AD |
| Gamaliel the Pharisee | Acts 5:34–39 mentions Gamaliel, a respected Pharisee, advising the Sanhedrin to leave the apostles alone. | Antiquities 20.9.4 and other references describe Gamaliel as a prominent Pharisee and teacher, respected in Jewish society. | ~30–50 AD |
| Theudas the Insurrectionist | Acts 5:36 references Theudas, a false prophet whose rebellion failed. | Antiquities 20.5.1 describes Theudas leading a revolt, later executed by Roman authorities. | ~44–46 AD |
| Judas the Galilean | Acts 5:37 mentions Judas leading a revolt during the census, later killed. | Antiquities 18.1.1 and Jewish War 2.8.1 describe Judas the Galilean’s revolt against the Roman census, founding the Zealot movement. | ~6 AD |
| Famine under Claudius | Acts 11:27–30 describes a great famine in Judea, prompting relief from Antioch Christians. | Antiquities 20.2.5 and 20.5.2 mention a severe famine in Judea under Claudius, alleviated by Queen Helena of Adiabene. | ~46–48 AD |
| Herod Agrippa II and Bernice | Acts 25:13–26:32 describe Paul’s trial before Agrippa II and Bernice in Caesarea. | Antiquities 20.7.2–3 and Jewish War 2.15.1 mention Agrippa II and his sister Bernice, their roles, and interactions with Roman governors. | ~59–62 AD |
| Felix, Roman Governor | Acts 23:24–24:27 describes Paul’s imprisonment and trial under Felix. | Antiquities 20.7.1–2 and Jewish War 2.13.2 describe Felix’s governorship and harsh rule in Judea. | ~52–60 AD |
| Festus, Roman Governor | Acts 24:27–25:12 mentions Festus succeeding Felix and handling Paul’s case. | Antiquities 20.8.9–10 describes Festus’s appointment and efforts to suppress unrest. | ~60–62 AD |
| Ananias, High Priest | Acts 23:2–5 describes Ananias ordering Paul struck during his trial. | Antiquities 20.5.2 and 20.9.2 mention Ananias as high priest, later assassinated for corruption. | ~47–59 AD |
Explanations and Notes
- Herod Agrippa I’s Death (44 AD):
- Acts: Portrays Agrippa’s death as divine judgment for accepting worship as a god, with an angel striking him, leading to death by worms (Acts 12:20–23).
- Josephus: Describes Agrippa falling ill at a festival in Caesarea, possibly due to poisoning or a medical condition, dying after five days (Antiquities 19.8.2). Both accounts align on the sudden and dramatic nature of his death.
- Historical Context: Agrippa I, king of Judea, was a key figure under Emperor Claudius. His death created a power vacuum, leading to direct Roman rule.
- Gamaliel the Pharisee (~30–50 AD):
- Acts: Gamaliel, a respected Sanhedrin member, advises caution regarding the apostles, citing past failed movements (Acts 5:34–39).
- Josephus: Mentions Gamaliel as a leading Pharisee and teacher, influential in Jewish legal circles (Antiquities 20.9.4). He is likely the same figure, possibly Paul’s teacher (Acts 22:3).
- Note: The timing of Gamaliel’s speech in Acts aligns with early Christian persecution (~30–35 AD), though Josephus’s references are less specific.
- Theudas the Insurrectionist (~44–46 AD):
- Acts: Gamaliel references Theudas’s failed revolt as an example of movements that collapse (Acts 5:36).
- Josephus: Describes Theudas leading followers to the Jordan River, claiming prophetic powers, but killed by Roman forces (Antiquities 20.5.1).
- Issue: Acts places Theudas before Judas the Galilean (6 AD), creating a chronological discrepancy, as Josephus dates Theudas to ~44–46 AD. This may reflect a narrative anachronism in Acts or a different Theudas.
- Judas the Galilean (~6 AD):
- Acts: Mentions Judas’s revolt during the census, which failed (Acts 5:37).
- Josephus: Describes Judas leading a tax revolt against Rome during Quirinius’s census, founding the Zealot movement (Antiquities 18.1.1; Jewish War 2.8.1).
- Context: The census (6 AD) sparked widespread unrest, and Judas’s movement influenced later Jewish rebellions.
- Famine under Claudius (~46–48 AD):
- Acts: Describes a famine predicted by Agabus, leading to Christian relief efforts (Acts 11:27–30).
- Josephus: Notes a severe famine in Judea, with Queen Helena of Adiabene providing aid (Antiquities 20.2.5).
- Context: The famine under Emperor Claudius aligns with historical records of grain shortages in the eastern Mediterranean.
- Herod Agrippa II and Bernice (~59–62 AD):
- Acts: Agrippa II and Bernice hear Paul’s defense in Caesarea, with Agrippa noting Paul could have been freed if not for his appeal to Caesar (Acts 25:13–26:32).
- Josephus: Details Agrippa II’s role as a Roman client king and Bernice’s controversial presence (Antiquities 20.7.2–3).
- Context: Agrippa II ruled parts of Judea and advised Roman governors, while Bernice was a prominent figure, later linked to Titus.
- Felix, Roman Governor (~52–60 AD):
- Acts: Felix oversees Paul’s trial, keeps him imprisoned, and hopes for a bribe (Acts 23:24–24:27).
- Josephus: Describes Felix’s governorship, marked by harsh measures against Jewish rebels (Antiquities 20.7.1–2).
- Context: Felix’s rule was turbulent, contributing to rising tensions in Judea.
- Festus, Roman Governor (~60–62 AD):
- Acts: Festus succeeds Felix, hears Paul’s case, and sends him to Rome (Acts 24:27–25:12).
- Josephus: Notes Festus’s efforts to manage Jewish-Roman conflicts (Antiquities 20.8.9–10).
- Context: Festus’s brief governorship preceded the First Jewish-Roman War.
- Ananias, High Priest (~47–59 AD):
- Acts: Ananias orders Paul struck during his trial, prompting Paul’s rebuke (Acts 23:2–5).
- Josephus: Describes Ananias’s corrupt tenure and eventual assassination by Jewish rebels (Antiquities 20.9.2).
- Context: Ananias was a polarizing figure, aligned with Roman interests.
Comparison: The Egyptian in Acts and Josephus
| Event/Figure | Description in Acts | Description in Josephus | Approximate Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Egyptian (False Prophet/Rebel) | Acts 21:38 mentions a Roman tribune asking Paul if he is “the Egyptian” who led a revolt and took 4,000 “assassins” (Sicarii) into the wilderness. | Jewish War 2.13.5 and Antiquities 20.8.6 describe the Egyptian as a false prophet who led a large following (30,000, per Josephus) to the Mount of Olives, promising to overthrow Roman rule, but was defeated by Felix’s forces. | ~52–58 AD |
Detailed Comparison
- The Egyptian in Acts:
- In Acts 21:38, during Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, a Roman tribune (Claudius Lysias) mistakes Paul for “the Egyptian,” asking, “Are you not the Egyptian, then, who recently stirred up a revolt and led the four thousand men of the Assassins (Sicarii) out into the wilderness?” (ESV). This implies the Egyptian was a known figure associated with a recent uprising.
- The “Sicarii” were a radical Jewish group known for assassinations, often targeting Roman collaborators. Acts suggests the Egyptian led a significant number of them, though the scale (4,000) is smaller than Josephus’s account.
- The Egyptian in Josephus:
- In Jewish War 2.13.5, Josephus describes the Egyptian as a false prophet who gathered a large following—around 30,000 people—and led them to the Mount of Olives, claiming he would cause the walls of Jerusalem to fall, signaling the overthrow of Roman rule. Roman governor Felix attacked, dispersing the group, and the Egyptian escaped.
- In Antiquities 20.8.6, Josephus provides a similar account, noting the Egyptian’s messianic claims and Felix’s decisive response. He emphasizes the Roman crackdown on such movements, which were common during this period of unrest.
- The discrepancy in numbers (4,000 in Acts vs. 30,000 in Josephus) may reflect exaggeration by Josephus, a common trait in ancient historiography, or a difference in sources.
- Historical Context and Overlap:
- Date: Both accounts place the Egyptian’s revolt during Felix’s governorship (52–60 AD), likely around 55–58 AD, aligning with the turbulent period leading up to the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 AD).
- Nature of the Figure: Both sources depict the Egyptian as a messianic or prophetic figure leading a rebellious movement against Roman authority, fitting the pattern of 1st-century Jewish uprisings. Acts’ reference to the Sicarii connects him to violent resistance, while Josephus emphasizes his role as a false prophet with a large, albeit short-lived, following.
- Location: Acts mentions the wilderness, while Josephus specifies the Mount of Olives as the staging ground for the Egyptian’s demonstration, which overlooks Jerusalem—a symbolically significant location for messianic expectations.
- Differences and Interpretation:
- Acts provides a brief, secondhand reference, using the Egyptian as a point of mistaken identity to highlight the Roman perception of Paul as a potential revolutionary. Josephus, writing as a historian, gives a more detailed narrative, focusing on the event itself and its political implications.
- The numerical difference (4,000 vs. 30,000) could stem from Acts relying on a Roman report (via the tribune) with a more conservative estimate, while Josephus, writing later, might inflate numbers to emphasize the scale of unrest under Roman rule.
- Neither source names the Egyptian, and his fate remains unclear—Josephus notes he fled, while Acts offers no further details.
The Interpretive Method of New Testament Authors
- Typological Interpretation (or Typology):
- Definition: Typology involves seeing OT events, figures, or institutions as “types” (patterns or foreshadowings) that prefigure or are fulfilled by Christ, the church, or other NT realities. The NT author interprets the OT text as pointing to a greater fulfillment in Jesus or the Christian community.
- Example: In Matthew 2:15, Hosea 11:1 (“Out of Egypt I called my son”) originally refers to Israel’s exodus but is applied typologically to Jesus as the true Israel who recapitulates and fulfills the nation’s story.
- Characteristics: Typology assumes historical correspondence and escalation, where the OT event is real but finds a deeper, often messianic, significance in the NT.
2. Pesher Interpretation:
- Definition: Pesher (from Hebrew, meaning “interpretation”) is a method where OT texts are applied directly to contemporary events or figures, often with an eschatological (end-times) focus. This was common in Jewish exegesis, notably in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and is used by NT authors to show how OT prophecies are fulfilled in their time.
- Example: Matthew 2:17–18 applies Jeremiah 31:15 (Rachel’s weeping) to the Bethlehem massacre, treating the OT text as prophetically fulfilled in Jesus’ era.
- Characteristics: Pesher often reads OT texts as cryptic predictions that find their true meaning in the present, sometimes stretching the original context.
3. Midrashic Interpretation:
- Definition: Midrash (from Hebrew, meaning “to search” or “expound”) is a Jewish interpretive method that creatively elaborates on OT texts to draw out moral, theological, or allegorical meanings. NT authors, especially Paul, use midrashic techniques to apply OT texts to new situations.
- Example: In 1 Corinthians 9:9–10, Paul uses Deuteronomy 25:4 (“Do not muzzle an ox”) midrashically to argue for supporting Christian ministers, extending the law’s principle beyond its literal meaning.
- Characteristics: Midrash often involves allegory, analogy, or recontextualization to make the text relevant to a new audience.
4. Allegorical Interpretation:
- Definition: Allegory treats OT texts as having hidden or symbolic meanings that point to spiritual truths, often beyond the literal sense. While less common in the NT than typology, it appears in some instances, particularly in Paul’s writings.
- Example: In Galatians 4:21–31, Paul allegorizes the story of Hagar and Sarah (Genesis 16–21) to represent the old and new covenants, respectively, a clear departure from the historical narrative.
- Characteristics: Allegory seeks deeper, symbolic meanings, sometimes detaching from the original context.
5. Fulfillment Citation:
- Definition: This term is used specifically for NT quotations introduced with phrases like “this was to fulfill” (common in Matthew) or “as it is written.” It reflects the NT authors’ belief that OT texts find their ultimate purpose or completion in Christ and the church, even if the original context was not explicitly prophetic.
- Example: Matthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14 (“the virgin shall conceive”) as fulfilled in Jesus’ virgin birth, despite its original context as a sign for King Ahaz.
- Characteristics: The focus is on Christological fulfillment, often reinterpreting non-prophetic texts as messianic.
Chart of Some NT Reinterpretations of OT Passages
| NT Reference | OT Source | OT Context | NT Usage | Shift in Meaning | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Matthew 2:15 | Hosea 11:1 | God’s historical deliverance of Israel from Egypt, called His “son.” | Jesus’ return from Egypt, fulfilling Israel’s role. | Historical event becomes a typological prophecy about Jesus. | Typology/Fulfillment Citation |
| Matthew 1:23 | Isaiah 7:14 | Sign for King Ahaz about a child named Immanuel, born to a young woman. | Jesus’ virgin birth, using Septuagint’s “virgin.” | Historical sign becomes a messianic prophecy. | Pesher/Fulfillment Citation |
| Matthew 2:17–18 | Jeremiah 31:15 | Rachel’s mourning for Israel’s exile, with hope for restoration. | Bethlehem infants’ massacre. | Historical lament reframed as a fulfilled tragedy. | Pesher/Fulfillment Citation |
| Matthew 3:3 | Isaiah 40:3 | Preparing a way for God’s deliverance of Israel from exile. | John the Baptist preparing for Jesus. | Exile restoration prophecy fulfilled in John’s ministry. | Pesher |
| John 19:36 | Psalm 34:20 (possibly Exodus 12:46) | God’s protection of the righteous or Passover lamb regulations. | Jesus’ unbroken bones at crucifixion. | General protection or ritual rule becomes a specific prophecy. | Typology/Fulfillment Citation |
| Acts 15:16–18 | Amos 9:11–12 | Restoration of Israel’s kingdom, dominance over Edom. | Gentile inclusion in the church, using Septuagint’s “mankind.” | National restoration becomes universal salvation. | Pesher |
| Romans 9:25–26 | Hosea 2:23, 1:10 | Restoration of Israel after judgment, called “my people.” | Gentiles becoming God’s people through faith. | Israel’s restoration extended to Gentiles. | Midrash/Typology |
| Romans 10:6–8 | Deuteronomy 30:12–14 | Accessibility of the Torah for obedience. | “Word of faith” in Christ, accessible through faith. | Torah’s accessibility becomes salvation through Christ. | Midrash |
| 1 Corinthians 9:9–10 / 1 Timothy 5:18 | Deuteronomy 25:4 | Law against muzzling an ox while treading grain. | Material support for Christian ministers. | Agricultural law reinterpreted for human laborers in ministry. | Midrash/Allegory |
| 2 Corinthians 6:16–18 | Leviticus 26:12, Ezekiel 37:27, 2 Samuel 7:14 | God’s covenant presence with Israel or Davidic king. | Church as God’s temple and people, including Gentiles. | Israel/Davidic promises applied to the church. | Pesher/Midrash |
| Galatians 3:16 | Genesis 12:7 | Promise of land to Abraham’s descendants (plural). | “Offspring” as Christ, the singular heir. | Collective promise narrowed to Jesus. | Midrash/Typology |
| Galatians 4:21–31 | Genesis 16–21 | Historical narrative of Hagar and Sarah, Abraham’s sons. | Allegory of old (law) and new (faith) covenants. | Family story becomes allegory for law vs. faith. | Midrash/Allegory |
| Hebrews 1:5 | Psalm 2:7 | God’s adoption of the Davidic king at coronation. | Jesus’ eternal divine sonship. | Royal coronation becomes Christ’s divinity. | Typology/Fulfillment Citation |
| Hebrews 10:5–7 | Psalm 40:6–8 | Obedience over sacrifice in personal worship. | Jesus’ incarnation and sacrificial death. | General worship statement becomes messianic prophecy. | Midrash/Typology |
| 1 Corinthians 15:54–55 | Isaiah 25:8, Hosea 13:14 | God’s future defeat of death or taunt against death. | Christ’s resurrection defeating death. | General/judgmental texts become resurrection triumph. | Pesher |
Notes on the Chart
- Columns:
- NT Reference: The NT passage where the OT is quoted or alluded to.
- OT Source: The specific OT verse(s) or passage(s) referenced.
- OT Context: The original meaning or historical setting of the OT text.
- NT Usage: How the NT author applies the OT text.
- Shift in Meaning: How the NT usage differs from or expands the original OT meaning.
- Interpretive Method: The primary method(s) used (typology, pesher, midrash, allegory), based on the definitions provided earlier.
- Interpretive Methods:
- Typology: OT events/figures as patterns fulfilled in Christ or the church.
- Pesher: OT texts as prophecies fulfilled in the NT era.
- Midrash: Creative elaboration to draw out new theological meanings.
- Allegory: Symbolic reinterpretation, often detaching from the literal sense.
- Fulfillment Citation: OT texts seen as completed in Christ, often with “this was to fulfill” phrasing.
Four Gospels Parallel Reading Chart in Chronological Order
I had AI create this simplified chart so that I could read the four gospels in parallel…
This chart organizes the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) in parallel, arranged in chronological order to facilitate reading the accounts of Jesus’ life and ministry side by side. Each row represents a key event or teaching, with corresponding passages listed for each Gospel. Blank cells indicate that a Gospel does not include that event. Read each row’s passages to follow the narrative chronologically across all four accounts.
| Event/Pericope | Matthew | Mark | Luke | John |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prologue and Early Life | ||||
| Genealogy of Jesus | 1:1-17 | 3:23-38 | ||
| Annunciation to Mary | 1:26-38 | |||
| Birth of Jesus | 1:18-25 | 2:1-7 | ||
| Shepherds Visit | 2:8-20 | |||
| Magi Visit | 2:1-12 | |||
| Flight to Egypt | 2:13-15 | |||
| Return to Nazareth | 2:19-23 | 2:39 | ||
| Jesus at Age 12 in Temple | 2:41-52 | |||
| Preparation for Ministry | ||||
| John the Baptist’s Ministry | 3:1-12 | 1:1-8 | 3:1-18 | 1:19-28 |
| Baptism of Jesus | 3:13-17 | 1:9-11 | 3:21-22 | 1:29-34 |
| Temptation of Jesus | 4:1-11 | 1:12-13 | 4:1-13 | |
| Early Judean Ministry (Mostly John) | ||||
| Wedding at Cana | 2:1-11 | |||
| First Temple Cleansing | 2:13-22 | |||
| Nicodemus Visits Jesus | 3:1-21 | |||
| Samaritan Woman at the Well | 4:1-42 | |||
| Galilean Ministry | ||||
| Call of the First Disciples | 4:18-22 | 1:16-20 | 5:1-11 | |
| Healing of Official’s Son | 4:46-54 | |||
| Rejection at Nazareth | 4:16-30 | |||
| Healing of Peter’s Mother-in-Law | 8:14-15 | 1:29-31 | 4:38-39 | |
| Sermon on the Mount | 5:1–7:29 | 6:20-49 | ||
| Healing of the Centurion’s Servant | 8:5-13 | 7:1-10 | ||
| Raising of Widow’s Son | 7:11-17 | |||
| Sending of the Twelve | 10:1-42 | 6:7-13 | 9:1-6 | |
| Beheading of John the Baptist | 14:1-12 | 6:14-29 | 9:7-9 | |
| Feeding of the 5,000 | 14:13-21 | 6:30-44 | 9:10-17 | 6:1-15 |
| Walking on Water | 14:22-33 | 6:45-52 | 6:16-21 | |
| Peter’s Confession of Christ | 16:13-20 | 8:27-30 | 9:18-21 | |
| Transfiguration | 17:1-13 | 9:2-13 | 9:28-36 | |
| Later Judean and Perean Ministry | ||||
| Healing of Blind Bartimaeus | 20:29-34 | 10:46-52 | 18:35-43 | |
| Parable of the Good Samaritan | 10:25-37 | |||
| Mary and Martha | 10:38-42 | |||
| Raising of Lazarus | 11:1-44 | |||
| Plot to Kill Jesus | 11:45-54 | |||
| Passion Week | ||||
| Triumphal Entry | 21:1-11 | 11:1-11 | 19:28-44 | 12:12-19 |
| Second Temple Cleansing | 21:12-13 | 11:15-19 | 19:45-48 | |
| Cursing of the Fig Tree | 21:18-22 | 11:12-14, 20-25 | ||
| Olivet Discourse | 24:1–25:46 | 13:1-37 | 21:5-36 | |
| Anointing at Bethany | 26:6-13 | 14:3-9 | 12:1-8 | |
| Last Supper | 26:17-30 | 14:12-26 | 22:7-38 | 13:1–17:26 |
| Betrayal by Judas | 26:47-56 | 14:43-52 | 22:47-53 | 18:2-12 |
| Peter’s Denial | 26:69-75 | 14:66-72 | 22:54-62 | 18:15-18, 25-27 |
| Trial Before Pilate | 27:11-26 | 15:1-15 | 23:1-25 | 18:28–19:16 |
| Crucifixion | 27:32-56 | 15:21-41 | 23:26-49 | 19:16-37 |
| Burial | 27:57-61 | 15:42-47 | 23:50-56 | 19:38-42 |
| Resurrection and Post-Resurrection | ||||
| Resurrection Morning | 28:1-10 | 16:1-8 | 24:1-12 | 20:1-18 |
| Road to Emmaus | 16:12-13 | 24:13-35 | ||
| Appearance to Disciples | 28:16-20 | 16:14-18 | 24:36-49 | 20:19-29 |
| Ascension | 24:50-53 |
How to Use This Chart
- Daily Reading: Read the passages listed in each row across all four Gospels to compare accounts of the same event. Skip blank cells where a Gospel does not cover the event.
- Chronological Flow: The events are ordered to reflect the likely sequence of Jesus’ life, starting with his birth and ending with the Ascension.
- Study Notes: For deeper study, note differences in details (e.g., Matthew’s emphasis on fulfilled prophecy, John’s focus on theological dialogues) as you read parallel passages.
- Time Estimate: Reading one row per day (approximately 70 rows) would take about 2–3 months, depending on reading speed and reflection time.
Eschatological Drift
Theology often adapts to historical events, which helps explain the different views on the end times (eschatology) even among early Christians. For instance, in letters written before the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in AD 70, Paul never links Christ’s return (the Parousia), the resurrection, or judgment to that event. Instead, he focuses on a general, future hope for all believers (e.g., 1 Corinthians 15:23; 1 Thessalonians 4:16), without mentioning the temple, which was still standing at the time.
In contrast, the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), likely written after the temple was destroyed, directly connect its fall to the Parousia. They portray the temple’s destruction as a sign of coming judgment and a lead-up to Christ’s return (Mark 13:2, 24–27; Matthew 24:2, 29–31; Luke 21:6, 20–28). Even so, they still view the resurrection as a future event, hinted at through symbols like the trumpet (Matthew 24:31) and affirmed in other teachings (Mark 12:25; Matthew 22:30; Luke 20:36).
Later still, the Gospel of John (written around AD 90–100) does not mention the temple’s destruction in relation to the Parousia or resurrection. Instead, it emphasizes a more spiritual or “realized” view of Christ’s presence now, while still affirming a future bodily resurrection (John 5:24–29). This reflects a shift toward a more universal theological perspective, no longer centered on the events of AD 70.
This development—from Paul’s silence on the temple, to the Synoptics’ focus on it, to John’s move beyond it—shows how early Christian beliefs about the end times evolved in response to historical changes.
Pursuit of Percipience 