Tag: Old Testament

The Hebrew Bible: Septuagint and Masoretic Texts

In this space I am going to store research concerning all things Hebrew Scriptures, focusing much on the Masoretic Text (MT) and the Septuagint (LXX): videos, articles, essays, Dead Sea Scroll (DSS) research, AI research, etc… So, if you are studying the MT and/or the LXX, and you’ve stumbled across this post, I hope you find something useful.

Part 1 of 3
Part 2 of 3
Part 3 of 3

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Dating the Hebrew Scriptures

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Dating the Scriptures (AI Research – Grok, ChatGPT, and Claude)

Torah (Pentateuch)

The first five books—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—are traditionally attributed to Moses but are now understood by most scholars as composite works from multiple sources (Yahwist, Elohist, Priestly, and Deuteronomic) compiled over centuries. Final redaction likely occurred during or after the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE).

  1. Genesis: Likely compiled in its current form during the Persian period (538–332 BCE), though it incorporates earlier oral and written traditions from the 10th–6th centuries BCE. The creation stories, patriarchal narratives, and flood accounts reflect ancient Near Eastern motifs, with some elements possibly dating to the early monarchy (10th century BCE). The final shaping likely occurred post-Exile to address the needs of the returning community.
  2. Exodus: Composed over time, with narrative cores (e.g., the Exodus event, covenant at Sinai) possibly rooted in 13th–10th-century BCE traditions. The Priestly and Deuteronomic elements were likely added during the 7th–5th centuries BCE, with final redaction in the Persian period (5th century BCE).
  3. Leviticus: Primarily a Priestly work, likely composed between the 6th and 5th centuries BCE during or after the Exile, though some ritual laws may reflect earlier practices (8th–7th centuries BCE). Its focus on purity and temple worship suggests a post-Exilic context.
  4. Numbers: A composite text with narrative and legal material, likely compiled in its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BCE). It incorporates earlier traditions, such as wilderness wanderings and census accounts, potentially from the 10th–7th centuries BCE, with Priestly and Deuteronomic additions in the 7th–5th centuries BCE. The final redaction reflects post-Exilic concerns about community identity and land allocation.
  5. Deuteronomy: Likely composed in stages, with a core tied to the reforms of King Josiah (late 7th century BCE, c. 622 BCE), based on its alignment with the “Book of the Law” found in 2 Kings 22:8–10. Additional material was added during the Babylonian Exile (597–538 BCE) and finalized in the Persian period (5th century BCE). Its covenantal theology and legal code reflect both pre-Exilic and post-Exilic contexts.

Nevi’im (Prophets)

The Nevi’im include the Former Prophets (historical narratives: Joshua – 2 Kings) and Latter Prophets (prophetic oracles: Isaiah – Malachi). The Former Prophets form part of the Deuteronomistic History (DtH), likely compiled during the Babylonian Exile (6th century BCE) with earlier sources. The Latter Prophets’ dates are tied to the historical periods of the named prophets, though redaction often occurred later.

  1. Joshua: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled in the 6th century BCE during the Exile. It incorporates earlier traditions about the conquest of Canaan (potentially 13th–10th centuries BCE), but its final form reflects Exilic theology, emphasizing obedience to the covenant.
  2. Judges: Also part of the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE. Stories of the judges likely stem from oral traditions of the pre-monarchic period (12th–11th centuries BCE), but the text’s structure and theological framing suggest Exilic redaction.
  3. 1 Samuel: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled c. 6th century BCE. It includes traditions about Samuel, Saul, and David from the early monarchy (11th–10th centuries BCE), redacted to emphasize divine kingship and covenant fidelity.
  4. 2 Samuel: Continues 1 Samuel, part of the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE. It draws on court records or oral traditions about David’s reign (10th century BCE), shaped by Exilic concerns about leadership and divine judgment.
  5. 1 Kings: Part of the Deuteronomistic History, compiled c. 6th century BCE, with possible updates in the Persian period. It incorporates royal annals and temple records from the monarchic period (10th–7th centuries BCE), framed to explain the Exile as divine punishment.
  6. 2 Kings: Completes the Deuteronomistic History, finalized c. 6th century BCE, with a possible secondary redaction (Dtr2) post-562 BCE to account for Judah’s fall. It uses earlier sources from the divided monarchy (9th–7th centuries BCE).
  7. Isaiah: A composite work spanning centuries. Chapters 1–39 (First Isaiah) are largely from the 8th century BCE (c. 740–700 BCE), attributed to Isaiah of Jerusalem. Chapters 40–55 (Second Isaiah) date to the late Exilic period (c. 550–538 BCE), and chapters 56–66 (Third Isaiah) to the early Persian period (c. 538–500 BCE). Redaction continued into the 5th century BCE.
  8. Jeremiah: Core oracles from Jeremiah’s ministry in the late 7th–early 6th centuries BCE (c. 627–587 BCE). The book was likely edited during the Exile (6th century BCE) and finalized in the Persian period, incorporating prose narratives and later additions.
  9. Ezekiel: Primarily from Ezekiel’s prophetic activity during the Exile (c. 593–571 BCE). The book’s final form, with its priestly and visionary content, was likely completed shortly after, c. 550 BCE.
  10. Hosea: Oracles from Hosea’s ministry in the Northern Kingdom (c. 750–725 BCE), with possible redaction in Judah during or after the fall of Israel (722 BCE). Final form likely 7th–6th centuries BCE.
  11. Joel: Difficult to date precisely due to lack of historical markers. Likely post-Exilic (5th–4th centuries BCE), though some argue for a pre-Exilic core (8th–7th centuries BCE). Its apocalyptic tone suggests a later composition.
  12. Amos: Oracles from Amos’ ministry in the Northern Kingdom (c. 760–750 BCE), with possible Judahite redaction after 722 BCE. Final form likely 7th–6th centuries BCE.
  13. Obadiah: Likely post-Exilic (5th century BCE), addressing Edom’s role in Judah’s fall (587 BCE). Some suggest an earlier core (7th–6th centuries BCE).
  14. Jonah: Likely a post-Exilic composition (5th–4th centuries BCE) due to its narrative style and universalist themes. Some argue for a 6th-century BCE origin, but its fictional nature suggests a later date.
  15. Micah: Oracles from Micah’s ministry (c. 740–700 BCE), with possible Exilic or post-Exilic additions (6th–5th centuries BCE). Final form likely 5th century BCE.
  16. Nahum: Oracles concerning Nineveh’s fall (612 BCE), likely composed shortly after, c. 612–600 BCE, with possible later redaction.
  17. Habakkuk: Oracles from the late 7th century BCE (c. 605–598 BCE), addressing Babylon’s rise. Final form likely early 6th century BCE.
  18. Zephaniah: Oracles from Zephaniah’s ministry (c. 640–622 BCE), with possible Exilic redaction. Final form likely 6th–5th centuries BCE.
  19. Haggai: Dated precisely to 520 BCE, based on internal references to the second year of Darius I. Minimal redaction, likely finalized shortly after.
  20. Zechariah: Chapters 1–8 from Zechariah’s ministry (c. 520–518 BCE). Chapters 9–14 (Second Zechariah) are likely later, from the 5th–4th centuries BCE, due to distinct style and historical context.
  21. Malachi: Post-Exilic, likely 5th century BCE (c. 450–400 BCE), addressing temple and social issues in the Persian period.

Ketuvim (Writings)

The Ketuvim include diverse genres (wisdom, poetry, history), with composition spanning a wide range. Many reached their final form in the Persian or Hellenistic periods.

  1. Psalms: A collection spanning centuries, with individual psalms potentially from the 10th century BCE (Davidic period) to the 5th century BCE. The collection was likely finalized in the Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE).
  2. Proverbs: Contains older sayings (some possibly from Solomon’s time, 10th century BCE), but the collection was likely compiled in the Hellenistic period (c. 332–198 BCE), with final redaction in the 3rd century BCE.
  3. Job: Likely composed in the 6th century BCE, post-Exile, though its poetic core may reflect earlier traditions (7th–6th centuries BCE). Its philosophical tone suggests a post-Exilic context.
  4. Song of Songs: Possibly rooted in earlier love poetry (8th–7th centuries BCE), but likely compiled in the Persian or Hellenistic period (5th–3rd centuries BCE).
  5. Ruth: Likely post-Exilic (5th–4th centuries BCE), reflecting Persian-period concerns about identity and inclusion. Some argue for an earlier monarchic setting (8th–7th centuries BCE).
  6. Lamentations: Likely composed shortly after Jerusalem’s fall (587 BCE), with final form in the early 6th century BCE. Its poetic structure suggests rapid composition.
  7. Ecclesiastes: Likely composed in the Hellenistic period (c. 3rd century BCE, possibly 250–200 BCE), due to its philosophical tone and linguistic features. Some suggest a 4th-century BCE origin.
  8. Esther: Post-Exilic, likely 5th–4th centuries BCE, reflecting events in the Persian court. Its narrative style suggests a later date, possibly 4th century BCE.
  9. Daniel: Chapters 1–6 likely from the 6th century BCE (Exilic), but chapters 7–12, with apocalyptic visions, date to the 2nd century BCE (c. 167–164 BCE), during the Maccabean revolt. Final form c. 164 BCE.
  10. Ezra: Likely compiled in the Persian period (5th century BCE, c. 450–400 BCE), with sources from the return from Exile (538 BCE onward).
  11. Nehemiah: Companion to Ezra, compiled c. 450–400 BCE, with memoir material from Nehemiah’s governorship (c. 445 BCE).
  12. 1 Chronicles: Likely 4th century BCE, post-Exilic, retelling Israel’s history with a focus on Davidic lineage and temple worship. Draws on earlier sources (e.g., Samuel, Kings) from the 10th–6th centuries BCE.
  13. 2 Chronicles: Companion to 1 Chronicles, also 4th century BCE, with similar sources and theological focus on Judah’s temple and monarchy.

Notes on Scholarship and Evidence

  • Earliest Evidence: The Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 2nd century BCE) provide the oldest surviving Hebrew manuscripts, confirming that many books were in near-final form by then. Earlier inscriptions, like the Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon (c. 1000 BCE), suggest Hebrew writing existed by the early monarchy, supporting the possibility of early written traditions.
  • Challenges: Dating relies on internal evidence (historical references, linguistic features) and external evidence (archaeology, ancient Near Eastern texts). The Documentary Hypothesis, though less dominant, informs Pentateuchal studies, while the Deuteronomistic History model shapes understanding of Joshua–Kings.
  • Debates: Conservative scholars (e.g., Edwin R. Thiele) argue for earlier dates, especially for Pentateuchal traditions (15th–13th centuries BCE), citing Mosaic influence. Critical scholars (e.g., John J. Collins, Israel Finkelstein) favor later dates, emphasizing Exilic and post-Exilic redaction. Archaeological evidence, like the Ketef Hinnom scroll (7th century BCE), supports pre-Exilic writing but not necessarily full texts.
  • Compilation Over Time: Most books evolved through oral traditions, written sources, and multiple redactions. For example, the Pentateuch’s final form reflects post-Exilic priorities, but earlier traditions may date back centuries. Prophetic books often combine a prophet’s oracles with later editorial framing.

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📜 The Torah / Pentateuch (Genesis – Deuteronomy)

Traditional attribution: Moses
Scholarly view: A compilation of sources over centuries

BookDateNotes
Genesis10th–5th century BCEContains material from the J (Yahwist, ~950 BCE), E (Elohist, ~850 BCE), P (Priestly, ~6th century BCE), and D (Deuteronomist, ~7th century BCE) sources. Final form likely post-exilic (5th century BCE).
ExodusSame as GenesisComposite from J, E, P, and D traditions.
Leviticusca. 6th–5th century BCEPrimarily Priestly material, likely written or compiled during the Babylonian Exile.
Numbers10th–5th century BCEComposite like Genesis and Exodus. Final form post-exilic.
Deuteronomyca. 7th century BCE, with later editsCore written during Josiah’s reforms (~620 BCE). Final form edited in exile or post-exile.

📘 Historical Books (Joshua – Esther)

BookDateNotes
Joshua7th–6th century BCEPossibly Deuteronomistic History; post-Josiah, edited in exile.
Judges7th–6th century BCEPart of the Deuteronomistic History (DtrH).
1 & 2 Samuel7th–6th century BCEEarlier sources from 10th–9th c. BCE; edited by Deuteronomistic historians.
1 & 2 Kings6th century BCEFinalized during Babylonian Exile; strong Deuteronomistic theology.
Ruth5th–4th century BCESet in Judges era, but written later; some see it as a response to Ezra-Nehemiah’s exclusionary policies.
1 & 2 Chroniclesca. 400–350 BCEPost-exilic; retelling of Samuel–Kings from a priestly perspective.
Ezra–Nehemiahca. 400–350 BCE (some argue slightly later)Compiled from earlier memoirs and edited in post-exilic period.
Esther4th–3rd century BCEPossibly fictional court tale with Persian setting; no direct mention of God.

🎙️ Wisdom and Poetry (Job – Song of Songs)

BookDateNotes
JobCore: 6th–5th century BCE; edits laterPossibly written in exile; explores innocent suffering.
Psalmsca. 10th–3rd century BCECollected over centuries; some psalms trace to Davidic era, others are post-exilic.
ProverbsCore: 10th–6th century BCE; final: ~4th c.Some sayings may be Solomonic; final compilation likely late Persian period.
Ecclesiastesca. 3rd century BCEPhilosophical reflections, traditionally attributed to Solomon.
Song of Songsca. 4th–3rd century BCELove poetry; possibly allegorical or secular; final form Hellenistic.
Lamentationsca. 586–500 BCELikely written after the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon.

📢 Major Prophets (Isaiah – Daniel)

BookDateNotes
IsaiahParts from 8th–5th century BCEDivided into First Isaiah (1–39) ~740–700 BCE, Second Isaiah (40–55) ~540 BCE (exilic), Third Isaiah (56–66) ~500–450 BCE (post-exilic).
Jeremiah7th–6th century BCEContains autobiographical materials, later edited.
Ezekielca. 593–571 BCEWritten during exile in Babylon.
Danielca. 167–164 BCESet in Babylon, but written during Antiochus IV’s persecution; earliest example of apocalyptic literature in Bible.

📣 Minor Prophets (The Twelve)

Often collected as one book in the Hebrew Bible. Dates vary per prophet:

BookDate
Hosea8th century BCE (before 722 BCE)
Joelca. 500–350 BCE (disputed: some say earlier)
Amosca. 760–750 BCE
Obadiahca. 6th century BCE
Jonahca. 4th–3rd century BCE
Micahca. 740–700 BCE
Nahumca. 620–610 BCE
Habakkukca. 610–597 BCE
Zephaniahca. 640–609 BCE
Haggai520 BCE
ZechariahChapters 1–8: 520–518 BCE; 9–14: ~4th century
Malachica. 450–400 BCE

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Based on the latest scholarly consensus, here’s a comprehensive list of when each Old Testament book is thought to have been written:

Torah (Five Books of Moses)

Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy

  • The majority of modern biblical scholars believe that the Torah reached its present form in the post-exilic period (5th century BCE)
  • However, these books contain material from various periods, with some traditions potentially dating much earlier

Historical Books

Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings

  • This group of books, plus Deuteronomy, is called the “Deuteronomistic history” by scholars, appearing in two “editions”, the first in the reign of Judah’s King Josiah (late 7th century BCE), the second during the exile (6th century BCE)
  • Final form: 6th century BCE (Babylonian exile period)

1-2 Chronicles

  • Chronicles was composed between 400 and 250 BCE, probably in the period 350–300 BCE

Ezra-Nehemiah

  • Ezra–Nehemiah may have reached its final form as late as the Ptolemaic period, c. 300–200 BCE

Ruth

  • The Book of Ruth is commonly dated to the Persian period (538-332 BCE)

Esther

  • Esther to the 3rd or 4th centuries BCE

Poetic/Wisdom Literature

Job

  • It is generally agreed that Job comes from between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE

Psalms

  • The psalms making up the first two-thirds of the psalter are predominantly pre-exilic and the last third predominantly post-exilic. The collected book of Psalms was possibly given its modern shape and division into five parts in the post-exilic period, although it continued to be revised and expanded well into Hellenistic and even Roman times

Proverbs

  • Proverbs is a “collection of collections” relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium, and impossible to date
  • Contains material from various periods, making precise dating difficult

Ecclesiastes

  • Ecclesiastes can be no earlier than about 450 BCE, due to the presence of Persian loan-words and Aramaic idioms, and no later than 180 BCE

Song of Songs

  • The Song of Songs could have been composed at any time after the 6th century BCE

Lamentations

  • It is generally accepted that the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BCE forms the background to the Book of Lamentations

Major Prophets

Isaiah

  • Scholars recognise three “sections” in the Book of Isaiah
  • First Isaiah (chapters 1-39): 8th century BCE
  • Second Isaiah (chapters 40-55): 6th century BCE (exile period)
  • Third Isaiah (chapters 56-66): 5th century BCE (post-exilic)

Jeremiah

  • The Greek version was probably finalised in the early Persian period and translated into Greek in the 3rd century BCE, and the Hebrew version dates from some point between then and the 2nd century BCE

Ezekiel

  • Internal evidence dates the visions to between 593 and 571 BCE. While the book probably reflects much of the historic Ezekiel, it is the product of a long and complex history, with significant additions by a “school” of later followers

Daniel

  • The Book of Daniel can be dated more precisely to 164 BCE thanks to its veiled prophecy of the death of a Greek king of Syria

Minor Prophets

In the Hebrew Bible the Twelve Minor Prophets are a single collection edited in the Second Temple period, but the collection is broken up in Christian Bibles. With the exception of Jonah, which scholars regard as fictional, there exists an original core of prophetic tradition behind each book

The individual books span from the 8th century BCE (Amos, Hosea) to the post-exilic period (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi).

Key Points:

  • Much of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament may have been assembled in the 5th century BCE
  • Many books underwent complex editorial processes over centuries
  • Dating relies primarily on internal evidence and historical references
  • The final canonical form of most books was established during or after the Babylonian exile (6th-5th centuries BCE)

This represents the current scholarly consensus, though individual scholars may hold different views on specific books, and new archaeological discoveries continue to refine our understanding of biblical composition dates.

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The Interpretive Method of New Testament Authors

  1. Typological Interpretation (or Typology):
  • Definition: Typology involves seeing OT events, figures, or institutions as “types” (patterns or foreshadowings) that prefigure or are fulfilled by Christ, the church, or other NT realities. The NT author interprets the OT text as pointing to a greater fulfillment in Jesus or the Christian community.
  • Example: In Matthew 2:15, Hosea 11:1 (“Out of Egypt I called my son”) originally refers to Israel’s exodus but is applied typologically to Jesus as the true Israel who recapitulates and fulfills the nation’s story.
  • Characteristics: Typology assumes historical correspondence and escalation, where the OT event is real but finds a deeper, often messianic, significance in the NT.

2. Pesher Interpretation:

  • Definition: Pesher (from Hebrew, meaning “interpretation”) is a method where OT texts are applied directly to contemporary events or figures, often with an eschatological (end-times) focus. This was common in Jewish exegesis, notably in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and is used by NT authors to show how OT prophecies are fulfilled in their time.
  • Example: Matthew 2:17–18 applies Jeremiah 31:15 (Rachel’s weeping) to the Bethlehem massacre, treating the OT text as prophetically fulfilled in Jesus’ era.
  • Characteristics: Pesher often reads OT texts as cryptic predictions that find their true meaning in the present, sometimes stretching the original context.

3. Midrashic Interpretation:

  • Definition: Midrash (from Hebrew, meaning “to search” or “expound”) is a Jewish interpretive method that creatively elaborates on OT texts to draw out moral, theological, or allegorical meanings. NT authors, especially Paul, use midrashic techniques to apply OT texts to new situations.
  • Example: In 1 Corinthians 9:9–10, Paul uses Deuteronomy 25:4 (“Do not muzzle an ox”) midrashically to argue for supporting Christian ministers, extending the law’s principle beyond its literal meaning.
  • Characteristics: Midrash often involves allegory, analogy, or recontextualization to make the text relevant to a new audience.

4. Allegorical Interpretation:

  • Definition: Allegory treats OT texts as having hidden or symbolic meanings that point to spiritual truths, often beyond the literal sense. While less common in the NT than typology, it appears in some instances, particularly in Paul’s writings.
  • Example: In Galatians 4:21–31, Paul allegorizes the story of Hagar and Sarah (Genesis 16–21) to represent the old and new covenants, respectively, a clear departure from the historical narrative.
  • Characteristics: Allegory seeks deeper, symbolic meanings, sometimes detaching from the original context.

5. Fulfillment Citation:

  • Definition: This term is used specifically for NT quotations introduced with phrases like “this was to fulfill” (common in Matthew) or “as it is written.” It reflects the NT authors’ belief that OT texts find their ultimate purpose or completion in Christ and the church, even if the original context was not explicitly prophetic.
  • Example: Matthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14 (“the virgin shall conceive”) as fulfilled in Jesus’ virgin birth, despite its original context as a sign for King Ahaz.
  • Characteristics: The focus is on Christological fulfillment, often reinterpreting non-prophetic texts as messianic.

Chart of Some NT Reinterpretations of OT Passages

NT ReferenceOT SourceOT ContextNT UsageShift in MeaningMethod
Matthew 2:15Hosea 11:1God’s historical deliverance of Israel from Egypt, called His “son.”Jesus’ return from Egypt, fulfilling Israel’s role.Historical event becomes a typological prophecy about Jesus.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 1:23Isaiah 7:14Sign for King Ahaz about a child named Immanuel, born to a young woman.Jesus’ virgin birth, using Septuagint’s “virgin.”Historical sign becomes a messianic prophecy.Pesher/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 2:17–18Jeremiah 31:15Rachel’s mourning for Israel’s exile, with hope for restoration.Bethlehem infants’ massacre.Historical lament reframed as a fulfilled tragedy.Pesher/Fulfillment Citation
Matthew 3:3Isaiah 40:3Preparing a way for God’s deliverance of Israel from exile.John the Baptist preparing for Jesus.Exile restoration prophecy fulfilled in John’s ministry.Pesher
John 19:36Psalm 34:20 (possibly Exodus 12:46)God’s protection of the righteous or Passover lamb regulations.Jesus’ unbroken bones at crucifixion.General protection or ritual rule becomes a specific prophecy.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Acts 15:16–18Amos 9:11–12Restoration of Israel’s kingdom, dominance over Edom.Gentile inclusion in the church, using Septuagint’s “mankind.”National restoration becomes universal salvation.Pesher
Romans 9:25–26Hosea 2:23, 1:10Restoration of Israel after judgment, called “my people.”Gentiles becoming God’s people through faith.Israel’s restoration extended to Gentiles.Midrash/Typology
Romans 10:6–8Deuteronomy 30:12–14Accessibility of the Torah for obedience.“Word of faith” in Christ, accessible through faith.Torah’s accessibility becomes salvation through Christ.Midrash
1 Corinthians 9:9–10 / 1 Timothy 5:18Deuteronomy 25:4Law against muzzling an ox while treading grain.Material support for Christian ministers.Agricultural law reinterpreted for human laborers in ministry.Midrash/Allegory
2 Corinthians 6:16–18Leviticus 26:12, Ezekiel 37:27, 2 Samuel 7:14God’s covenant presence with Israel or Davidic king.Church as God’s temple and people, including Gentiles.Israel/Davidic promises applied to the church.Pesher/Midrash
Galatians 3:16Genesis 12:7Promise of land to Abraham’s descendants (plural).“Offspring” as Christ, the singular heir.Collective promise narrowed to Jesus.Midrash/Typology
Galatians 4:21–31Genesis 16–21Historical narrative of Hagar and Sarah, Abraham’s sons.Allegory of old (law) and new (faith) covenants.Family story becomes allegory for law vs. faith.Midrash/Allegory
Hebrews 1:5Psalm 2:7God’s adoption of the Davidic king at coronation.Jesus’ eternal divine sonship.Royal coronation becomes Christ’s divinity.Typology/Fulfillment Citation
Hebrews 10:5–7Psalm 40:6–8Obedience over sacrifice in personal worship.Jesus’ incarnation and sacrificial death.General worship statement becomes messianic prophecy.Midrash/Typology
1 Corinthians 15:54–55Isaiah 25:8, Hosea 13:14God’s future defeat of death or taunt against death.Christ’s resurrection defeating death.General/judgmental texts become resurrection triumph.Pesher

Notes on the Chart

  • Columns:
    • NT Reference: The NT passage where the OT is quoted or alluded to.
    • OT Source: The specific OT verse(s) or passage(s) referenced.
    • OT Context: The original meaning or historical setting of the OT text.
    • NT Usage: How the NT author applies the OT text.
    • Shift in Meaning: How the NT usage differs from or expands the original OT meaning.
    • Interpretive Method: The primary method(s) used (typology, pesher, midrash, allegory), based on the definitions provided earlier.
  • Interpretive Methods:
    • Typology: OT events/figures as patterns fulfilled in Christ or the church.
    • Pesher: OT texts as prophecies fulfilled in the NT era.
    • Midrash: Creative elaboration to draw out new theological meanings.
    • Allegory: Symbolic reinterpretation, often detaching from the literal sense.
    • Fulfillment Citation: OT texts seen as completed in Christ, often with “this was to fulfill” phrasing.

Daniel 9:25 Confusion

Below is a comparison of different translations rendering Daniel 9:25 (emphasis mine)…

There are some things to notice:

  1. The NKJV uses the word “command,” while the other translations use “word.”
  2. The NKJV capitalizes “Messiah the Prince,” while the others do not.
  3. Artscroll does not use the term “messiah” or “anointed one.”
  4. The NKJV writes “seven weeks and sixty-two weeks” consecutively, without a break, while the other translations do include a break–a period for the ESV, a semi colon for the NRSV, and a comma for Artscroll.

Firstly, the decision whether to the use “command” or “word” may depend on the translator’s bias. Do they want a decree from a king? Or a prophesy from a seer?

Secondly, the NKJV apparently wants the reader to believe this messiah is Jesus.

Third, I’ll include a possible explanation from AI as to why the Artscroll translation omits “messiah” below.

Fourth, the NKJV seems to want the reader to see the seven weeks and sixty-two weeks as occurring one right after the other, a straight sixty-nine week time period. However, the Hebrew may not allow for that. Consider the text below in Hebrew…

I asked AI (Grok and ChatGPT) if there was any mark with the word “seven” which would indicate a break after that word. This was the response…

Grok
ChatGPT

So, there should be a break after the seven weeks*, which means that, according to the prophesy, the messiah mentioned in the verse likely should have appeared in history directly after the first seven weeks, or forty-nine years. If that’s correct, this messiah is not Jesus (although it can be seen as a type of Christ). The commentary in my Artscroll bible suggests it was Cyrus, and the commentary in my NRSV suggests it was the high priest Joshua (see Haggai 1:12; Ezra 2:2, 3:2; Zechariah 4:14, 6:10-12). Therefore, according to these commentaries, the “word” going out was not a kingly decree, but rather a prophesy–possibly spoken by Jeremiah (the NRSV suggests Jeremiah 25:11). Also notice how the NRSV refers to the “word” in the past tense, meaning that for Daniel it would have already been past tense and thus not a future decree of Cyrus. Daniel 9 begins with Darius the Mede still in power, which was before Cyrus.

Carol A. Newsom, in her commentary, suggests the author of Daniel 9 was not trying to pin down precise dates, but rather “to connect important events in history by means of a symbolic heptadonal system of time.”** We must take note of the seven weeks as being a time of jubilee (see Leviticus 25:8ff), and also the 490 years as being ten jubilee periods. It doesn’t necessarily matter when the 70 weeks began as long as we can connect the right events together, and since the theme of jubilee (freedom) is being focused on we can assume the events have to do with Jews regaining their autonomy and purpose as God’s people.

James B. Jordan, in his commentary, reads the 70 weeks as consecutive.*** He makes no mention of the apparent pause in the text after the first seven weeks. He also insists that the 70 weeks began with the decree of Cyrus in 537 BC. But, if the 70 weeks are read literally and consecutively, the prophesy takes us only to the year 47 BC. Jordan’s solution to this is to say that the first seven weeks were literal (from Cyrus’s decree to Nehemiah’s return to Jerusalem). The following sixty-two weeks were symbolic, resulting in the last week being postponed. And the last week, or 70th week, was again literal, which started with the ministry of Jesus and ended with the death of Stephen in Acts 7. Jordan takes a few paragraphs to explain why the sixty-two weeks were symbolic, but basically he argues that God postpones judgement throughout scripture to be merciful, and also to harden the rebellious ones.

* There is no cantillation mark in the Hebrew which indicates there is any pause or break after the “sixty-two weeks” as the NKJV has it. There should be no period, semi colon, or comma after “sixty-two weeks.”

** Newsom, Carol A. Daniel: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press, 2014, p. 619.

*** Jordan, James B. The Handwriting on the Wall: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. American Vision, 2007, p. 469ff. I am quite certain Jordan’s translation of choice is the NASB, which renders Daniel 9:25 as: “So you are to know and understand that from the issuing of a decree to restore and rebuild Jerusalem, until Messiah the Prince, there will be seven weeks and sixty-two weeks; it will be built again, with streets and moat, even in times of distress.” (emphasis mine)

***

Below is an explanation from AI as to why the Artscroll translation omits “messiah.”

1. The Hebrew Text and Translation Choices

The Hebrew of Daniel 9:25 reads:
וְתֵדַע וְתַשְׂכֵּל מִן-מֹצָא דָבָר לְהָשִׁיב וְלִבְנוֹת יְרוּשָׁלִַם עַד-מָשִׁיחַ נָגִיד שִׁבְעָה שָׁבֻעִים וְשִׁבְעִים וּשְׁנַיִם שָׁבֻעִים תָּשׁוּב וְנִבְנְתָה רְחוֹב וְחָרוּץ וּבְצוֹק הָעִתִּים
Translated literally, this is:
“Know and understand: From the going forth of the word to restore and build Jerusalem until an anointed one, a leader/prince (mashiach nagid), seven weeks; and for sixty-two weeks, it will be rebuilt, street and moat, but in troubled times.”

The key phrase here is mashiach nagid. The ArtScroll translation you cited appears to focus on nagid (“leader” or “prince”) and omits or reinterprets mashiach (“anointed one”). This could stem from the following considerations:

  • Emphasis on Nagid: The term nagid means “leader,” “ruler,” or “prince” and is often used in the Hebrew Bible to denote a person of authority, such as a king or governor (e.g., Saul in 1 Samuel 9:16). In Daniel 9:25, nagid modifies mashiach, suggesting the “anointed one” is a leader or ruler. ArtScroll may have chosen to translate mashiach nagid as “the prince” to emphasize the leadership role and avoid the potentially loaded term mashiach.
  • Omission of Mashiach: By rendering mashiach nagid as “the prince,” ArtScroll may be simplifying the phrase to focus on the functional role (nagid) rather than the ritual status (mashiach, i.e., one anointed with oil). This could reflect a desire to avoid any messianic connotations associated with mashiach, especially given Christian interpretations that link this verse to Jesus as “the Messiah.”

2. Jewish Interpretive Tradition

Jewish exegesis of Daniel 9:25 varies widely, and ArtScroll, as an Orthodox Jewish translation, likely draws on traditional commentators like Rashi, Ibn Ezra, or Saadia Gaon. These scholars often interpret the mashiach nagid as a historical figure rather than an eschatological Messiah:

  • Rashi: Suggests the mashiach nagid could be Cyrus, King of Persia, who is called God’s “anointed” (mashiach) in Isaiah 45:1 and who issued the decree to rebuild Jerusalem (Ezra 1:1-3). Rashi emphasizes Cyrus as a nagid (leader) who facilitated the return from exile.
  • Ibn Ezra: Proposes the mashiach nagid might refer to Zerubbabel, a Davidic prince who led the rebuilding efforts, or Joshua, the high priest (Zechariah 6:11-12).
  • Saadia Gaon: Views the mashiach as a high priest or leader during the Second Temple period.

By translating mashiach nagid as “the prince,” ArtScroll aligns with interpretations that identify the figure as a historical leader (e.g., Cyrus, Zerubbabel, or a high priest) rather than an eschatological “Messiah.” The term “prince” captures the leadership aspect (nagid) while sidestepping the theological weight of mashiach.

3. Avoiding Messianic Connotations

As noted in my previous response, the term mashiach is sensitive due to Christian interpretations of Daniel 9:25 as a prophecy about Jesus. ArtScroll’s choice of “prince” instead of “anointed one” may be a deliberate move to:

  • Distance from Christian Readings: Christian translations, like the King James Version, render mashiach as “Messiah” to support the idea that the verse predicts Jesus’ arrival. By using “prince,” ArtScroll avoids any implication that this figure is the eschatological Messiah, aligning with Jewish theology that the Messiah has not yet come.
  • Neutralize Eschatological Implications: In Jewish thought, the ultimate Messiah (Messiah ben David) is associated with redemption, peace, and rebuilding the Temple, not with being “cut off” or the destruction of Jerusalem (Daniel 9:26). Translating mashiach nagid as “the prince” keeps the focus on a historical or temporal leader, avoiding confusion with Jewish messianic expectations.

4. ArtScroll’s Translation Philosophy

ArtScroll’s Tanach (Stone Edition) aims to provide a translation that is both accessible to modern readers and faithful to traditional Jewish exegesis. This involves:

  • Simplification for Clarity: The phrase mashiach nagid is complex, combining two terms with overlapping but distinct meanings. Rendering it as “the prince” simplifies the text for readers while conveying the idea of an authoritative figure, which nagid emphasizes.
  • Reliance on Rabbinic Commentary: ArtScroll often incorporates interpretations from classical Jewish sources (e.g., Rashi, Talmud) into its translation. By choosing “prince,” ArtScroll may be reflecting a specific rabbinic interpretation that prioritizes the historical context of Daniel 9:25 over a literal rendering of mashiach.
  • Consistency with Other Verses: In Daniel 9:26, the same mashiach is mentioned as being “cut off.” ArtScroll may avoid “anointed one” in 9:25 to maintain consistency with 9:26, where the term is similarly interpreted as a leader or prince, not the Messiah.

5. Textual and Grammatical Nuances

The ArtScroll translation you cited—”until the appointment of the prince”—suggests an interpretive addition. The Hebrew ad mashiach nagid (“until an anointed one, a leader”) does not explicitly include “appointment,” but this may reflect:

  • Masoretic Punctuation: The athnach (a disjunctive accent) in the Masoretic Text separates the “seven weeks” from the “sixty-two weeks,” implying the mashiach nagid appears after the seven weeks (49 years), possibly Cyrus or another early figure. ArtScroll’s “appointment” may interpret this as the moment the leader is designated or rises to prominence.
  • Dynamic Equivalence: ArtScroll sometimes opts for dynamic equivalence (conveying meaning over word-for-word translation) to make the text clearer. “Appointment of the prince” may be an attempt to clarify that the mashiach nagid is a divinely ordained leader, consistent with Jewish readings of the verse.

Conclusion

The ArtScroll Bible’s translation of Daniel 9:25 as “until the appointment of the prince” instead of “anointed one” reflects a combination of factors:

  1. A focus on nagid (“leader/prince”) over mashiach (“anointed one”) to emphasize the figure’s role as a historical leader (e.g., Cyrus, Zerubbabel, or a high priest).
  2. Alignment with Jewish interpretive traditions that reject eschatological or Christian messianic readings of the verse.
  3. A translation philosophy that prioritizes clarity and rabbinic exegesis over literal rendering, avoiding the theologically charged term mashiach.
  4. Sensitivity to Jewish theology, which reserves the term “Messiah” for the future redeemer, not a figure associated with destruction (Daniel 9:26).

This choice underscores ArtScroll’s commitment to presenting the text through the lens of Orthodox Jewish scholarship, avoiding interpretations that could be misconstrued as supporting Christian claims about Jesus.